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China

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China
中华人民共和国 (Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó)
Chongsheng Temple, Yunnan
Chongsheng Temple, Yunnan
Capital Beijing
Continent Asia
Subregion East Asia
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal (industrial hemp excepted)
Status Since 2025
Enforcement Compulsory eradication of illegal cultivation; clearance of wild stands
Documentation
Growing Regions 6
Growing Areas 29
Accessions 185
Conservation
Populations none documented yet
Seed held in gene banks 1 accession (National Plant Germplasm System 1)


China is a country in East Asia where, on whole-genome evidence, Cannabis sativa was first domesticated in early Neolithic times. On the same evidence, all current hemp and drug cultivars diverged from an ancestral gene pool now represented by feral plants and landraces in China.[1]

A harvest list in the Shijing names hemp with grain, beans and wheat,[2] and the sixth-century Qimin yaoshu gives separate instructions for growing it for fibre and for seed.[3] The Shennong bencao jing (神農本草經), a materia medica that E. Joseph Brand and Zhongzhen Zhao date to the first or second century AD, warns that eating too much mafen (麻蕡) makes a person "see ghosts and run about frenetically".[4][5]

Cannabis is named among the narcotic drugs (毒品, dúpǐn) defined in the Criminal Law and in the Narcotics Control Law, which prohibits its illegal cultivation.[6][7] Since July 2025 it has been listed in the catalogue of non-medical narcotic drugs, which may be used in research but may not be produced, traded or used.[8][9] Yunnan's police license the growing of industrial hemp, defined there as plants with less than 0.3 per cent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) by dry weight,[10] and Heilongjiang allows varieties approved by its agriculture department to be grown on filing with the county police.[11] Police and local governments clear naturally growing stands, which Chinese reports call 野生大麻 (yěshēng dàmá, "wild cannabis"), as drug-source plants (毒品原植物).[12][13]

Geography

China lies in eastern Asia on the western shore of the Pacific and has a land area of about 9.6 million square kilometres.[14] A chloroplast-DNA study of 645 plants from 52 accessions, 25 of them wild populations, found three lineages distributed along a high, middle and low latitudinal gradient in China, the high-latitude group mainly north of about 40° N and the low-latitude group mainly south of about 30° N. Among 20 climatic factors, day length had the most influence on their population structure.[15] The same authors describe the wild populations they sampled between 2011 and 2016 in Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, Shandong, Xinjiang, Tibet and Yunnan as covering "the only distribution ranges of extant wild" cannabis in the country.[15] A whole-genome study by Xuan Chen and colleagues found wild cannabis mainly distributed across China's high-latitude regions.[16]

Industrial hemp is grown legally in Yunnan in the south-west, where the police license it,[10] and in Heilongjiang in the north-east, where the provincial agriculture department expected fibre hemp in 2026 to be concentrated around Qiqihar, Heihe, Suihua, Harbin, Jiamusi and Jixi.[17] High-quality charas that Xinjiang sent to British India came from Khan-Arik, between Yarkand and Kashgar.[18]: 80 I. C. and R. N. Chopra wrote that plants grown in Yarkand gave the highest yield and best quality of charas resin, the plant growing there both wild, at 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and in cultivation.[19] Fibre hemp was grown on the Chengdu plain of Sichuan in the early 20th century[20]: 74 and on a large scale in the Tai'an district of Shandong in the 1970s and early 1980s.[21]

Demographics

The 2020 census counted 1,411,778,724 people in the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities of the mainland and in the armed forces. Of the population, 91.11 per cent were Han and 8.89 per cent belonged to minority nationalities.[22]

Communities with cannabis relationships

At Baidi village in Sanba township, Shangri-La, in Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, some Naxi folk artisans still spin hemp, a craft now rarely seen in daily life in other Naxi areas, according to an account published by the Shangri-La government. Sa is the Naxi folk name for hemp; the cloth woven from its bast is called pei.[23] At Baidi hemp seed, which the Naxi call samei, is dried, boiled in water and counted among their sources of oil and fat.[24] The Dongba sutras of the Naxi record the fruit, leaves, stem and bark of cannabis taken by mouth against constipation.[25]

The costume of the Miao of Changning in Baoshan, Yunnan, entered on the first national list of intangible cultural heritage in 2006, is made mainly of locally produced huǒmá (火麻, hemp) homespun. The fibre is spun into thread on hand-cranked wheels and woven on household looms. Songs that grew up with the craft include a "hemp-planting and weaving tune" (种麻纺织调).[26] The Lisu of Dechang county in Sichuan weave cloth from the fibres of huǒcǎo (火草) and huǒmá in more than 20 steps, a craft added to the national list in 2014.[27]

Among the Hmong of Wenshan in Yunnan, cotton replaced hemp in everyday dress from the 1980s, but burial clothing must still be made of hemp so that the soul of the dead can reach the place of the ancestors. In Wakana Sato's summary of Chie Miyawaki's 2017 ethnography, the Hmong value hemp because it decays together with the body.[28]

The Yi of Mile in Yunnan press oil from hemp seed, which they call zime, and use the seed and root to clear obstructions and to moisten the lungs.[29] The Yi of Xiaoliangshan have cultivated cannabis for a very long time.[30] The Bouyei (Buyi) of south-western Guizhou give livestock powdered hemp seed as an aperient and a cooling remedy.[31] The Baiku Yao of Guangxi keep cannabis in their homegardens; they grind the seed for soup, add the tender leaves to hotpot and bathe in a decoction of the whole plant to unblock the meridians and treat paralysis.[32][33]

In Xinjiang, according to Hu Hongxing, Zhang Guanbai and Hao Wei, cannabis arrived from India with mohe tobacco (莫合烟) in the 16th and 17th centuries and by the 18th had spread across the region, smoked first by the elite and the wealthy and later by the middle and lower strata. Smoking it as máyān (麻烟) was as ordinary as smoking mohe. Writing in 2015, they reported that many older people in Xinjiang smoked it to refresh themselves, sharpen the appetite and aid digestion and did not regard it as a drug.[34]

Agriculture

A harvest list in the Shijing names hemp (麻) with grain, beans and wheat (禾麻菽麥), and the Eastern Han commentator Zheng Xuan counted hemp among the "five grains" of the Rites of Zhou.[2][35] In 1848 the botanist Wu Qijun wrote that hemp seed had dropped out of the diet only in recent times and that hemp was sown ever more rarely.[36]

On the Chengdu plain of Sichuan the British consul-general Alexander Hosie found "the true hemp plant" grown very extensively in the districts of Wen-chiang and P'i Hsien, where a mou of land produced 100 to 120 catties of cleaned fibre.[20]: 74 The fibre went into ropes, cordage and caulking for the junks of the upper Yangtze and into coarse cloth for grain sacks, while the poorest cloth was made up into mourning dress for the poor.[20]: 75 Hosie warned that the returns of the Chinese Maritime Customs classed fibres so loosely that at some ports they were "indiscriminately called hemp", so that rhea, hemp, Abutilon hemp and jute were mixed together.[20]: 72–73

In the 1970s and early 1980s Shandong produced more than 100,000 tons of hemp ribbon a year. On Robert C. Clarke's estimate the Tai'an district grew about 65,000 hectares a year and supplied about 60 per cent of the province's ribbon. By 1992 Tai'an produced no more than 10,000 tons on less than 10,000 hectares, a decline Clarke attributed to shrinking markets for hemp products and the low price of ribbon against other crops.[21] In the FAO series for mainland China, official figures give 159,700 hectares of fibre hemp in 1978, 40,690 in 1983, 5,110 in 2010 and 21,900 in 2017, with a harvest of 124,700 tonnes in 2017; FAO's own estimates for 2019 to 2024 lie between about 18,000 and 19,500 hectares.[37]

In 2020 Heilongjiang grew 268,500 mu (about 17,900 hectares) of industrial hemp, which its agriculture department calls 汉麻 (hànmá): 235,500 mu for fibre and 33,000 for flowers and leaves. The department's five-year plan set a target of 1,000,000 mu for 2025.[38] In Yunnan more than 90 enterprises held cultivation licences in 2020 and grew 90,000 mu (about 6,000 hectares); 15 held licences to extract cannabidiol (CBD).[39] In the Xishuangbanna communities surveyed in 2017, hemp was a cash crop that the government had promoted since 2004.[40] Hemp seed (火麻仁, huǒmárén) was on the Ministry of Health's first list of items that are both food and medicine in 1987 and on the list it issued in 2002.[41][42]

Cannabis in China

Main article: Cannabis in China

The common Chinese name of the plant, 大麻 (dàmá), heads its entry in the Bencao gangmu of the 16th-century physician Li Shizhen. He recorded the names huǒmá (火麻), huángmá (黃麻) and hànmá (漢麻) and named the male plant 枲麻 or 牡麻 and the female 苴麻 or 茡麻. Citing Shen Kuo, he wrote that sesame had been called 胡麻 (húmá) to distinguish it from China's own 大麻.[43] Modern law uses 大麻 for the drug and 大麻植物 for the plant,[7] Yunnan's licensing regulation uses 工业大麻 for industrial hemp,[10] Heilongjiang's agriculture department writes 汉麻[38] and police reports call naturally growing stands 野生大麻.[13]

History

Main article: History of cannabis in China

A single cannabis seed, less than half the size of a modern one, came from a late Yangshao layer at Yanggua in the Longdong basin of eastern Gansu, of about 5000 calibrated years before present; its finders wrote that further study was needed to determine whether it was cultivated or gathered.[44] Finds of cannabis achenes from East Asia increase markedly between about 5000 and 4000 calibrated years before present.[45] At Haimenkou in Yunnan more than 800 grains were recovered from deposits dated between 1650 and 400 BC. Their contexts suggest storage as a food grain; their size points to a crop beginning to evolve from its early domesticated form towards larger oilseed and fibre varieties.[46] Dal Martello and colleagues place "the earliest reported grains" from China at Zhuzhai in the middle Yellow River valley, dated about 5900 to 5800 BC.[46] Early claims of Chinese hemp textiles, based mostly on fabric impressions on ceramics, have been disputed; a complete roll of woven hemp from Gaocheng Taixi in Hebei dates from the Shang period.[46]

In tomb M90 of the Yanghai Tombs near Turpan, 789 grams of cannabis lay in a leather basket and a wooden bowl beside a man identified as a shaman.[47][48] First dated to about 2500 years before present, the burial has since been given a calibrated date of about 2700 years. Ethan Russo and colleagues found cannabinol, a breakdown product of THC, in the material as well as the gene for THCA synthase, and concluded that the Gushi culture most probably cultivated cannabis "for pharmaceutical, psychoactive or divinatory purposes".[48] At Jiayi, also near Turpan, 13 nearly whole plants about 2800 to 2400 years old had been arranged as a burial shroud over a man's body.[49] At the Jirzankal Cemetery in the eastern Pamirs, cannabis was burned in wooden braziers during mortuary ceremonies around 500 BC; the team that analysed the residues calls them "some of the earliest directly dated and scientifically verified evidence for ritual cannabis smoking".[50] More than 120,000 cannabis fruits from the Han cemetery of Laoguanshan in Chengdu are thought by their analysts to have been used medicinally.[51] In the Astana cemeteries of Turpan, of about the third to the ninth century, the tail of a clay horse figurine is made of hemp fibre.[52]

A synthesis of fossil pollen places the centre of origin of the genus on the north-eastern Tibetan Plateau, in the general vicinity of Qinghai Lake,[53] while the chloroplast-DNA study finds its earliest-diverging lineage at low latitudes and infers a low-latitude origin.[15] On the whole-genome evidence, the early domesticated ancestors of hemp and drug types diverged from basal cannabis about 12,000 years ago; distinct hemp and drug types formed about 4000 years ago.[1]

In the Shijing the line "in the ninth month we gather the ju" (九月叔苴) is glossed by the Mao commentary as gathering hemp seed (苴，麻子也). The Tang subcommentator Kong Yingda explains that the seed, first ripening in the ninth month, was gathered for soup and vegetables.[2] The Book of Rites prescribes that in autumn the Son of Heaven "eats hemp with dog" (食麻與犬).[54] The Qimin yaoshu (齊民要術) of Jia Sixie, written in the sixth century, treats fibre hemp (種麻) and seed hemp (種麻子) in separate chapters. The fibre crop is harvested when its pollen is shed "like ash" (勃如灰) and is retted in clear water; in the seed crop the male plants are pulled out once they have shed pollen, because if they are removed earlier "the seeds will not set" (不成子實).[3]

The Shennong bencao jing adds to its warning on mafen that taken over a long time it "frees the spirit light and lightens the body".[5][4] Tao Hongjing wrote that mabo (麻勃) was little used in prescriptions but that practitioners of the occult arts took it with ginseng to know the future (逆知未來事), a remark preserved in the Song Zhenglei bencao.[55] Li Shizhen called this an overstatement (過言) and read a recipe of mabo and ginseng in Fan Wang's formulary as a cure for forgetfulness.[43] The anaesthetic máfèisàn (麻沸散), which the surgeon Hua Tuo gave in wine before operating, is recorded in the Book of the Later Han;[56] Brand and Zhao judge any link between it and cannabis "purely speculative", since its original ingredients are lost. By the Qing, they write, many materia medica gave monographs only on the seed and omitted the inflorescence, a practice carried into modern textbooks.[4]

Douglas Forsyth's mission to Yarkand in 1870 reported that charas was that year the most important export from Yarkand to India, extracted from hemp "grown on the borders of every field".[57]: 28 J. E. T. Aitchison recorded 9,134 maunds of charas imported into Leh from Yarkand over the preceding six years; in Turki the plant was kandir and the extract nasha. He wrote that the ruler of Yarkand had prohibited its cultivation in regular fields, so that it was raised in single rows round fields of other crops.[58]: 51–52 H. W. Bellew wrote that the "hemp resin, or bang" of Yarkand formed the principal item of export towards Kashmir and the Punjab.[59]: 7 The geographer Hermann Kreutzmann finds silk yarn and charas "by far" the two major commodities exported from Xinjiang to British India between 1895 and 1939.[18]: 80

According to China's annual reports for 1933 and 1935, "Indian hemp" was placed on the list of narcotic drugs after an analysis by the National Health Administration found the wild hemp of Sinkiang "homogenous" with Cannabis indica, and in 1934 the government issued circular instructions to the provinces and municipalities for its suppression. A study by the United Nations Secretariat, published in 1953, concluded that the provincial government of Sinkiang prohibited the export of charas in 1934 on the national government's instructions, although the full effect was not felt for several years.[60] Two measures were taken in 1936. The duty was raised from 20 to 200 rupees a pony load, after which the export of charas "nearly collapsed and never recovered", and in January the head of the Kashgar administration announced that "the sale and transmission (export) of opium, Charas and wine is prohibited from today".[18]: 80, 82 The Chopras wrote that charas was used in India until about 1934–35, when the Government of India stopped its import entirely,[19] and India's annual report for 1944 recorded that illicit imports from Chinese Turkistan had stopped "on account of the reported stoppage of its production there".[60] China was not a party to the 1925 Geneva International Opium Convention, which the United Nations study calls the only one that controlled Indian hemp and its product charas,[60] although at the Geneva conference its delegate, Dr Sze, had supported the Egyptian proposal on controlling the traffic in hashish.[61]: 379

According to Zhou Limin, the Nationalist chairman of Xinjiang, Zhang Zhizhong, campaigned against opium and máyān from 1945 and in June 1946 publicly burned confiscated opium, máyān and smoking utensils in Ürümqi. Growing cannabis and making and smoking máyān remained common in remote villages after 1949; in the mid-1960s and the 1970s most growers raised it for their own and their companions' use and very rarely sold it.[62] Kashgar, Hotan, Makit, Yengisar, Bachu, Aksu, Xinhe, Kuqa, Luntai and Korla still grew cannabis in quantity in the 1950s and 1960s, and more than 10,000 growers were counted in Xinjiang in 1990, though the count was incomplete.[34] The regional government issued a notice prohibiting the cultivation of cannabis in 1985. In 1991 the standing committee of the regional people's congress adopted regulations prohibiting cannabis drugs, which Zhou calls the first relatively systematic local regulation of its kind in China's history.[62][63] National statute had named cannabis among narcotic drugs in the Decision on the Prohibition of Narcotic Drugs of 28 December 1990.[64]

Cultivation

Main article: Cannabis cultivation in China

In the Qimin yaoshu fibre hemp was sown from white seed, three sheng to the mu on good land and two on poor, with the best sowing ten days before the summer solstice. For a seed crop the farmer sowed spotted black seed, which "yields abundantly" (饒實), in the third month and left one plant every two chi.[3] On the Chengdu plain in Hosie's account, seed mixed with rape cake and wood ash was sown in February and the crop cut in June, retted for three or four days in shallow pits and bleached over burning sulphur.[20]: 74 In the Tai'an district of Shandong in the early 1990s the local fibre landrace was known as "Lai Wu" or "Fei Cheng" hemp, after two of its producing counties. Clarke judged that it produced little if any THC and "cannot be considered a drug variety"; he reported no local tradition of its use as medicine or inebriant.[21]

A survey of 23 principal varieties from 17 counties of Yunnan, published in 1993, classed 43.5 per cent as drug type, 26.1 per cent as intermediate and 30.4 per cent as fibre type.[65] Yunma No. 1 (云麻1号), selected from a Yunnan local variety, was approved by the provincial variety committee in July 2001; its breeders put its THC content at about 0.03 per cent.[66] In 2024 a later cultivar, Yunma 8, covered more than 90 per cent of the province's industrial-hemp area.[67] In Heilongjiang provincial academies and private companies had 14 cultivars recognised between 2015 and 2018, among them Huoma No. 1 and the Hanma, Longma and Qingdama series;[68] Huoma No. 1 was registered by the provincial crop variety committee on 17 January 2015.[69] The three industrial-hemp varieties the province approved in 2025, all seed types, had THC contents of 0.03 to 0.28 per cent.[70]

A resequencing of 21 accessions from 14 provinces divided Chinese cannabis into five groups: wild plants of the north-west, wild plants of the north-east, fibre crops of the north-east, seed crops of the north-west and cultivated plants of the south-west.[16] A marker study of 115 varieties, 100 of them from 18 Chinese provinces, grouped them into northern China, central China, southern China and Europe.[71]

The whole-genome study of 2021 found that all the feral plants it sampled were "not wild types, but historical escapes from domesticated forms" and suggested that pure wild progenitors of the species have gone extinct.[1] Chen and colleagues call the Chinese material "wild (or feral)"; its traits are early flowering, small seeds, a low natural germination rate, caruncles on the seeds, easy abscission and strong branching. They describe the wild accessions of low-latitude south-western China as "heterozygotes of wild and cultivated cannabis".[16] A reference genome of what its authors call wild Cannabis sativa was assembled from samples collected in Kyirong Gully in Tibet by the Institute of Forensic Science of the Ministry of Public Security.[72]

Preparations and consumption

Clarke reported in 1995 that across much of China whole hemp seeds were eaten raw or roasted as snacks and oil was sometimes pressed from them. Neither seed nor oil was commonly eaten in Tai'an, where peasants said that eating too many seeds would make one faint.[21] Naxi, Yi and Baiku Yao communities use the seed and leaves for oil, soup and hotpot.[24][29][32] Residents of Bama in Guangxi make cooking oil from hemp seed, which a review of the county's reputation for longevity counts among its "specialty foods".[73]

In Chinese medicine only the seed, huǒmárén, is now used clinically. It gives its name to mázǐrén wán (麻子仁丸, "cannabis seed pill"), a laxative formula that the physician Zhang Zhongjing first recorded around the second century AD.[4] A randomised trial of 291 patients with functional constipation at eight clinics in Hong Kong found the formula well tolerated and effective, though not apparently more effective than senna.[74] A review of 17 trials from East Asia, which its authors rated at moderate to high risk of bias, judged the formula effective in Asian patients with functional constipation.[75]

Yarkand charas was made from dried female flower heads. In the Chopras' description they were crushed by hand and sieved to the fineness of sand, stored in rawhide bags through the winter and then exposed to the sun until the resin melted.[19]

The office of the National Narcotics Control Commission counted 24,000 cannabis users at the end of 2018, 25.1 per cent more than a year earlier, and noted rising use among foreigners in China, people who had studied or worked abroad and entertainers.[76] Its count for the end of 2025 was 15,000.[77]

Religious and cultural use

In the Baopuzi, Ge Hong listed mabo taken with kudzu flowers among the means of foreknowledge: the taker grows drowsy, hears someone speak of the matter in doubt and learns at once whether it will go well or ill.[78] A Lingbao scripture calls hemp "the chief of the five grains", able to make one "know the myriad things and communicate with the spirit light". A recipe in the same scripture has mabo gathered on the seventh of the seventh month, pounded with ginseng and steamed.[79]

The Naxi painted ritual images on hemp cloth, among them the scroll of the "Road of the Gods" (神路图), about 15 metres long, which their priests have handed down for at least several centuries.[23] On the Chengdu plain the poorest hemp cloth was made into mourning dress for the poor in Hosie's day.[20]: 75 The Qimin yaoshu quotes a rite from the Longyu hetu in which, on the last night of the year, 14 hemp seeds and 14 beans are thrown into a well with a little of the household's hair, keeping cold-damage disorders from the family for a year and warding off the plague demons of the five directions.[3]

Trade and commerce

Main article: Cannabis trade in China

India's total recorded imports of charas were 97,949 kilograms in 1931 and 62,380 kilograms in 1932, apparently the last year for which its reports stated them; the Government of India had earlier permitted the import of 70,000 kilograms a year.[60] Hosie judged that little of Sichuan's true hemp left the province and that most of the "hemp" shipped down the Yangtze from Sichuan was the fibre of Abutilon.[20]: 75

In March 2019 officials of the narcotics control bureau of the Ministry of Public Security said that cannabidiol was not a controlled drug but that cannabis grown to extract it still needed approval under the controls on drug cannabis, because extraction from young leaves and flower buds generally produced more than 0.3 per cent THC.[80] In 2020 Jilin's development and reform commission reported that the cannabidiol extracted in Heilongjiang and Yunnan was mainly exported as raw material, that no medicine based on it had been developed in China and that Heilongjiang had decided on 28 August 2019 to stop growing and processing cannabis for cannabidiol.[81] More than 40 listed companies announced moves into industrial hemp; reporters for the National Business Daily dated the turn in the trade to the cosmetics ban published on 28 May 2021 and found little hemp planted in several Yunnan counties in June 2022.[82]

The narcotics control office's report for 2014 found illegal cannabis cultivation in 25 provinces and singled out criminals in the north-east who hired farm households to grow, sell and transport cannabis.[83] In 2015 the police broke 1,158 cases of cannabis production and trafficking and seized 8.7 tonnes of cannabis and resin; the report for that year noted indoor and greenhouse growing in a few places.[84] The report for 2018 described cannabis smuggled from North America in international parcels, with 125 cases and 55 kilograms seized, and domestic offenders who learned growing techniques from foreign websites and obtained seed through illegal channels.[76] Seizures of cannabis from abroad, mainly from North America, came to 308.9 kilograms in 2021.[85] In 2023 most foreign cannabis came from Thailand: of 78 smuggling cases and 120.1 kilograms seized, 30 cases and 105.3 kilograms originated there. The average retail price of cannabis fell by 23 per cent to 334 yuan a gram as supply increased.[86]

Main article: Cannabis law in China

The Criminal Law of 1997 defines drugs as opium, heroin, methamphetamine, morphine, cannabis, cocaine and other addictive narcotic and psychotropic substances controlled by the state. Illegally cultivated cannabis is to be eradicated compulsorily in every case; a grower who eradicates the crop before harvest may be exempted from punishment.[6] The Supreme People's Court sets the quantities. Since 2016 growing 5,000 to 30,000 plants, or sowing 2,000 to 12,000 square metres that have not yet sprouted, has counted as a relatively large quantity, and reaching the upper limits as a large one. For trafficking, 5 kilograms of cannabis oil, 10 of resin or 150 of leaf is a large quantity; for seed, 50 kilograms of seed or 50,000 seedlings is a relatively large one.[87] The Narcotics Control Law, in force from 1 June 2008, prohibits the illegal cultivation of cannabis plants and requires local governments to stop and eradicate it on discovery. Village and residents' committees carry the same duty and must report it to the police. The law repealed the Decision of 1990.[7]

From 20 January 2025 the regulations on narcotic and psychotropic substances divide them into medical and non-medical classes; substances in the non-medical class may be used in experimental research but not produced, traded, used, stored or transported.[9] The non-medical catalogue published on 21 July 2025 lists cannabis, cannabis resin, cannabis extracts and tinctures, hexahydrocannabinol and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol with its isomers.[8] Synthetic cannabinoids have been controlled as a class since 1 July 2021, a step the national narcotics control office announced would make China the first country in the world to do so.[88] Under a judicial opinion of 2014 on the naming of drugs, drugs containing natural cannabinoids such as THC, cannabidiol and cannabinol count as cannabis drugs.[89] From May 2021 cannabidiol and the fruit, seed oil and leaf extract of Cannabis sativa were banned as cosmetic ingredients.[90]

Yunnan's licensing regulation, in force since 1 January 2010, defines industrial hemp as plants of the genus Cannabis and their extracts with less than 0.3 per cent THC by dry weight and places flower and leaf products above that level under drug law. Growing for research, seed multiplication and industrial raw material and the processing of flowers and leaves need police licences valid for two years. Horticultural growing and growing by farm households in ethnic-minority or remote mountain areas for their own use require only filing. Licensed growers must eradicate other cannabis within 3 kilometres of their fields or report it to the police.[10] The provincial police still cited the regulation as the basis for these licences in April 2026.[91] Heilongjiang's narcotics control regulations, in force since 1 May 2017, have a chapter on industrial hemp. Varieties must be approved by the provincial agriculture department, growers file their planting with the county police within 10 working days and by-products above the approved THC level must be rendered harmless.[11]

The 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs does not apply to cannabis grown exclusively for industrial purposes, meaning fibre and seed, or for horticultural purposes.[92] China acceded to the convention as amended on 23 August 1985 and ratified the 1988 convention against illicit traffic on 25 October 1989.[93][94] In March 2019 officials of the Ministry of Public Security said that, apart from industrial hemp grown for fibre and seed, cannabis plants for any use are controlled and may be grown only with official approval. They added that China had approved neither the cultivation of medical cannabis nor any medicine containing THC or other active cannabinoids.[80]

Enforcement

Main article: Eradication campaigns in China

From 1992 the national narcotics control commission and the forestry departments flew aerial surveys for drug plants over primeval forest in the Greater Khingan range of the north-east and at Lianhua Shan in the north-west.[95] In 2012 a State Council report stated that Operation Tianmu (天目), a satellite remote-sensing programme, had largely eliminated large-scale illegal cultivation of drug plants.[96] In 2015 the authorities found and eradicated 1,882 mu (about 125 hectares) of cannabis and 1.48 million plants, increases of 882 and 87.9 per cent on the previous year.[84] In 2016 Operation Tianmu-16, using satellite remote sensing and drones, found and eradicated 147 mu and 1.39 million plants.[97] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime records the 2016 figure as 9.8 hectares and 1,390,000 plants and gives 710 plants for 2018.[98][99] The narcotics control office reported in September 2023 that Operation Tianmu had removed 28.3 mu of illegally grown cannabis since a crackdown began that June.[100]

Xinjiang's regulations of 1991, as amended in 1997, required local governments and village committees to organise the prompt eradication of wild cannabis.[63] Police in the Bole reclamation area of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps cleared more than 100,000 wild plants in June 2016.[101] Border police at Horgos cleared more than 8,000 from fields in 2022 after ruling out planting,[102] and border police in Altay Prefecture uprooted more than 20,000 in a remote forest belt in August 2023.[103] In 2026 a search by several departments of Midong district in Ürümqi found a continuous stand of more than 200,000 wild plants on hillsides near Baiyanghe, which was eradicated; police there warned that allowing wild plants to grow, like deliberate planting, was unlawful.[13] In Hunchun in Jilin, police who cleared more than 2,100 plants in 2025 traced their spread to grosbeaks, which eat the seed and pass much of it undigested.[104] Reports from Manzhouli in Inner Mongolia and Markam in Tibet describe plants growing without pattern and with no sign of planting.[12][105] Border police at Gudeng in Nujiang, Yunnan, ruled out planting before clearing more than 1,200 plants on a hillside in 2015.[106] In Guyuan in Ningxia a drone flown during an unannounced inspection in July 2023 found 34 wild plants in one village; across the city, searches had by then found scattered wild cannabis at more than 20 sites and removed 1,500 plants.[107]

Growing Regions

Region
Kham
Northeast China
Northern Xinjiang
Southeastern Tibet
Southern Xinjiang
Yunnan

Growing Areas

Growing AreaRegion
AktoSouthern Xinjiang
ArtuxSouthern Xinjiang
BortalaNorthern Xinjiang
Changzhi
Chengdu Plain
Chumbi Valley
DêqênYunnan
GyalrongKham
Gyirong Valley
HeilongjiangNortheast China
Ili ValleyNorthern Xinjiang
Jinan
KashgarSouthern Xinjiang
KhotanSouthern Xinjiang
KongpoSoutheastern Tibet
Liangshan
LijiangYunnan
Lu'an
NujiangYunnan
Qingshui County
Shangluo
Tai'an
Weining
Xining
YarkandSouthern Xinjiang
Yu County, Hebei
Yuanping
Zaozhuang
Zunhua

Accessions

A herbarium sheet that Rohmoo Lepcha gathered at Lingmuthang, in the Chumbi Valley of Tibet, on 12 September 1912 is held by the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh as E00248816 (Rohmoo Lepcha 57 (1912)).[108] ACE Seeds lists its "China Yunnan" line (ACE-CHN-YUN-0120130001) as a landrace strain and describes it as a third-generation, indica-dominant line from Yunnan.[109]

Accession IDNameCollectedArea
ACE-CHN-YUN-0120130001China Yunnan Reproduction 2013
Anon. 1813 (s.d.)Herbarium specimen 1813, Heng County, Guangxi (s.d.)
Anon. 2808 (1931)Herbarium specimens 2808, Hai-tchen (1931)
Anon. 29 (1946)Herbarium specimen 29, Peitaiho, Hopeh (1946)
Anon. 6033 (1920)Herbarium specimen 6033, Shantung (1920)
Anon. 6255 (1921)Herbarium specimen 6255, Shantung (1921)
Anon. 6874 (1922)Herbarium specimen 6874, Shansi (1922)
Anon. 69 (1930)Herbarium specimen 69, Chiu-shan-tou (1930)
Anon. 7363 (1924)Herbarium specimen 7363, Chahar-gobi (1924)
Anon. 7543 (1924)Herbarium specimen 7543, China (1924)
Anon. 9133 (1929)Herbarium specimen 9133, China (1929)
Anon. 92561 (1939)Herbarium specimens 92561, Kwangsi (1939)
Anon. s.n., Harbin (1924)Herbarium specimen of seedlings, environs of Harbin (1924)
Armacost 66 (1930)Armacost 66 herbarium specimen, Hopei (1930)
Balfour 75 (1910)Balfour 75 herbarium specimen, Eastern China (1910)
Beach 48 (1948)Beach 48 herbarium specimen, Hsin Chi, Hopei (1948)
Bock 668 (1891)Bock and Rosthorn 668 herbarium specimen, Nanch'uan (1891)
Bock 909 (1891)Bock and Rosthorn 909 herbarium specimen, Nanch'uan (1891)
Bodinier s.n., Beijing (1889)Bodinier s.n. herbarium specimen, plain of Peking (1889)
Carles 195 (1885)Carles 195 herbarium specimen, banks of the Peiho (1885)
Chang 0104 (1940)Chang 0104 herbarium specimen, Song-Ming, Yunnan (1940)
Chao 197 (1940)Chao 197 herbarium specimen, Ch'ing-feng Shan, Shensi (1940)
Chao s.n. (1939)Chao s.n. herbarium specimen, Western Hills, Peking (1939)
Cheo 224 (1936)Cheo 224 herbarium specimen, Meng Shan, Fei Hsien (1936)
Chiao 2698 (1930)Chiao 2698 herbarium specimen, Lao Shan, Shantung (1930)
Chiao 3165 (1930)Chiao 3165 herbarium specimen, Tsinan-fu (1930)
Chien 152 (1941)Chien 152 herbarium specimens, Sanqing Ge, Kunming (1941)
Ching 681 (1923)Ching 681 herbarium specimen, south of Sining (1923)Xining
Ching 8530 (1925)Ching 8530 herbarium specimen, Huang Shan, Anhwei (1925)
Ching 9060 (s.d.)Ching 9060 herbarium specimen, Kwei Chow, Anhwei (undated)
Chow 41363 (1931)Chow 41363 herbarium specimen, West Hill, Peking (1931)
Chow 42064 (1932)Chow 42064 herbarium specimen, Huailai Hsien (1932)
Chow s.n. (1930)Chow herbarium specimens, Hopei (1930)
Chu 3393 (1936)Chu 3393 herbarium specimen, Pao Hsing hsien (1936)
Chung 83105 (1940)Chung 83105 herbarium specimen, Shatang, Liuchow (1940)
Clemens 1765 (1912)Clemens 1765 herbarium specimen, Tientsin (1912)
Couling s.n., Qingzhou (by 1895)Couling s.n. herbarium specimen, I tu hsien, Shantung (by 1895)
Cunningham 145 (1923)Cunningham 145 herbarium specimen, Tatsien-lu (1923)
David s.n., Beijing (1865)David s.n. herbarium specimen, environs of Peking (1865)
Dorsett 5857 (1930)Dorsett and Morse 5857 herbarium specimen, near Dairen (1930)
EBC 43406 (by 1910)Kew Economic Botany object 43406, hemp seed from Manchuria, given by the Japan-British Exhibition of 1910
EBC 43408 (by 1862)Kew Economic Botany object 43408, hemp seed from northern China, given by T. L. Bickford in 1862
EBC 43464 (by 1862)Kew Economic Botany object 43464, hemp fibre from northern China, given by T. L. Bickford in 1862
EBC 71830 (s.d.)Kew Economic Botany object 71830, hemp seed from Yarkand
EBC 91993 (by 2012)Kew Economic Botany object 91993, hemp fibre from near Duyun, Guizhou, collected by J. Balfour-Paul
Fang 12269 (1938)Fang 12269 herbarium specimens, Chengtu, Szechuan (1938)
Fang 3525 (1928)Fang 3525 herbarium specimen, Kangting hsien (1928)
Fang 9123 (1930)Fang 9123 herbarium specimen, Szechwan (1930)
Farges 198 (s.d.)Farges 198 herbarium specimen, district of Tchen-kéou-tin (undated)
Farges s.n., Chengkou (s.d.)Farges s.n. herbarium specimen, district of Tchen-kéou-tin (undated)
Fenzel 2369 (1934)Fenzel 2369 herbarium specimen, Hsien Yang, Shensi (1934)
Forrest 4761 (1906)Forrest 4761 herbarium specimen, Tali, Yunnan (1906)
Fortune s.n. (by 1856)Fortune s.n. herbarium specimen, China (by 1856)
Fu 1897 (1937)Fu 1897 herbarium specimen, Sungpan, Szechuan (1937)
Hao 3544 (1932)Hao 3544 herbarium specimens, Chengchow, Honan (1932)
Hao 825 (1930)Hao 825 herbarium specimen, Shangwuchuang, Sining (1930)
Hao 827 (1930)Hao 827 herbarium specimen, Shangwuchuang, Sining (1930)
Henry 11209 (s.d.)Henry 11209 herbarium specimen, Feng Chen Lin, Yunnan (undated)
Henry 2431 (by 1887)Henry 2431 herbarium specimen, Patung district, Hubei (by 1887)
Ho 6478 (1935)Ho 6478 herbarium specimens, Omei Shan, Szechwan (1935)
Hopkinson 1626 (1931)Hopkinson 1626 herbarium specimen, Peitaiho (1931)
Hsia 1923 (1930)Hsia 1923 herbarium specimen, Peitaiho (1930)
Hsia 2811 (1931)Hsia 2811 herbarium specimen, Halach'ingkow, Tats'ingshan (1931)
Hsia 3662 (1933)Hsia 3662 herbarium specimen, south of Yülin city, Shensi (1933)
Huang 2627 (1930)Huang 2627 herbarium specimen, Nitou, Szechwan (1930)
Huang Zhi 40835 (1937)Huang Zhi 40835 herbarium specimen (1937)
Hummel 1330 (1927)Hummel 1330 herbarium specimen, Tsachan tjollo Gol, Inner Mongolia (1927)
Hummel 164 (1928)Hummel 164 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928)
Hummel 679 (1928)Hummel 679 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928)
Hummel 874 (1928)Hummel 874 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928)
Hummel 908 (1928)Hummel 908 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928)
Hummel 909 (1928)Hummel 909 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928)
Ishidoya s.n. (1943)Ishidoya s.n. herbarium specimen, Temple of Heaven, Peking (1943)
Iwan s.n. (s.d.)Iwan s.n. herbarium specimen, China (undated)
King 460 (1936)King 460 herbarium specimen, Po-Hua-Shan (1936)
King 686 (1936)King 686 herbarium specimen, Temple of Heaven, Peiping (1936)
Kung 2091 (1931)Kung 2091 herbarium specimen, Changchailingtzu, Chingpohu (1931)
Kung 730 (1930)Kung 730 herbarium specimen, Tiehling, Fengtien (1930)
Larionov 65 (1876)Larionov 65 herbarium specimen, Chulak-terek river, Kuldja (1876)
Licent 231 (1914)Licent 231 herbarium specimen, Makiapou, northern Shansi (1914)
Licent 886 (1914)Licent 886 herbarium specimen, Cheou-yang, Shansi (1914)
Liou 1923 (1930)Liou 1923 herbarium specimen, Western Hills, Peking (1930)
Liou 20810 (1946)Liou 20810 herbarium specimen, Taihua Si, Kunming (1946)
Liou 3403 (1931)Liou 3403 herbarium specimen, Sinkiang (1931)Bortala
Liou 4945 (1935)Liou 4945 herbarium specimen, Laochünshan, Lushih-hsien (1935)
Liou 9208 (1936)Liou 9208 herbarium specimen, Lungtan, Kiangsu (1936)
Liu 1046 (1934)Liu 1046 herbarium specimens, Kangting, Sikang (1934)
Liu L2441 (1929)Liu L2441 herbarium specimen, Hopei (1929)
Liu Ying 10878 (1935)Liu Ying 10878 herbarium specimen, Xiao Wutai Shan (1935)
Liu Ying 13331 (1950)Liu Ying 13331 herbarium specimen, Hebei (1950)
Ludlow 15714 (1947)Ludlow, Sherriff and Elliot 15714 herbarium specimen, Shoga Dzong (1947)Kongpo
Maire 1828 (by 1906)Maire 1828 herbarium specimen, vicinity of Yun-nan-sen (by 1906)
Maire 342 (s.d.)Maire 342 herbarium specimen, Yunnan (undated)
Maire s.n., Dongchuan (s.d.)Maire s.n. herbarium specimen, plain of Tong-tchouan (undated)
Makino s.n., Jinzhou (1941)Makino herbarium specimen, Kinshu, Manchuria (1941)
Migo s.n. (1943)Migo herbarium specimen, Hopeh (1943)
NPG-CHN-ANH-0019110001Hwai Yuan General Population 1911
NPG-CHN-BEI-1119240001Huangan General Population 1924
NPG-CHN-BEI-1119240002Hsiamaling General Population 1924
NPG-CHN-BEI-1119240003Peking Market General Population 1924
... further results

Conservation status

The 2020 Red List of China's higher plants assesses Cannabis sativa as Least Concern.[110] On the whole-genome evidence, feral plants and landraces in China represent the ancestral gene pool from which every current hemp and drug cultivar diverged; pure wild progenitors of the species may have gone extinct.[1]

China's national bast-fibre germplasm bank held more than 1,300 industrial-hemp accessions of medicinal, seed and fibre types in 2020, according to its director.[111] A study of 199 accessions grown in 2018 at the farm of the Institute of Bast Fibre Crops in Changsha, 135 of them from China and 64 from abroad, found lower values on each diversity index in 30 local cultivars than in 109 wild accessions and concluded that the domesticated accessions "did not significantly differ from wild germplasms in China".[112]

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See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Ren, G.; Zhang, X.; Li, Y.; Ridout, K.; Serrano-Serrano, M.L.; Yang, Y.; Liu, A.; Ravikanth, G.; Nawaz, M.A.; Mumtaz, A.S.; Salamin, N.; Fumagalli, L. (2021). "Large-scale whole-genome resequencing unravels the domestication history of Cannabis sativa". Science Advances. 7 (29) eabg2286. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg2286.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 孔穎達 (Kong Yingda). "卷八：豳風·七月". 毛詩正義 [Correct Meaning of the Mao Odes] (in 中文). Commentary by Mao Heng; annotation by Zheng Xuan. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikisource.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 賈思勰 (Jia Sixie). "卷第二：小豆第七；種麻第八；種麻子第九". 齊民要術 [Essential Techniques for the Common People] (in 中文) (Siku quanshu ed.). Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikisource.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Brand, E. Joseph; Zhao, Zhongzhen (2017). "Cannabis in Chinese medicine: are some traditional indications referenced in ancient literature related to cannabinoids?". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 8 108. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00108.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 孫星衍 (Sun Xingyan); 孫馮翼 (Sun Fengyi) (eds.). "麻賁". 神農本草經 [Divine Farmer's Materia Medica] (in 中文). Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikisource.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "中华人民共和国刑法" [Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China] (in 中文). 全国人民代表大会. 14 March 1997. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "中华人民共和国禁毒法" [Narcotics Control Law of the People's Republic of China] (in 中文). 北京市禁毒委员会办公室. 29 December 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 公安部; 国家卫生健康委员会; 国家药品监督管理局 (21 July 2025). "关于发布《非药用类麻醉药品和精神药品目录》的公告" [Announcement on Publishing the Catalogue of Non-Medical Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances] (in 中文). Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via 吉安县公安局.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "国务院关于修改和废止部分行政法规的决定" [Decision of the State Council on Amending and Repealing Certain Administrative Regulations] (in 中文). 中华人民共和国国务院. 6 December 2024. 国务院令第797号. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 "云南省工业大麻种植加工许可规定" [Regulations on the Licensing of Industrial Hemp Cultivation and Processing in Yunnan Province] (in 中文). 云南省人民政府. 22 October 2009. 云南省人民政府令第156号. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via 中国政府网.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "黑龙江省禁毒条例" [Heilongjiang Province Narcotics Control Regulations] (in 中文). 黑龙江省人民代表大会常务委员会. 7 April 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "呼伦贝尔市：满洲里市刑警大队成功铲除销毁3000余株大麻植株" [Hulunbuir: Manzhouli criminal police eradicate and destroy more than 3,000 cannabis plants]. 中国禁毒网 (in 中文). 27 July 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "乌鲁木齐20万株野生大麻被铲除！绿化带竟藏"毒隐患"？这个知识要了解→" [200,000 wild cannabis plants eradicated in Ürümqi]. 南方网 (in 中文). 1 July 2026. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  14. ↑ "国情" [National conditions]. 中国政府网 (in 中文). Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Zhang, Q.; Chen, X.; Guo, H.; Trindade, L.M.; Salentijn, E.M.J.; Guo, R.; Guo, M.; Xu, Y.; Yang, M. (2018). "Latitudinal adaptation and genetic insights into the origins of Cannabis sativa L." Frontiers in Plant Science. 9 1876. doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.01876.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Chen, Xuan; Guo, Hong-Yan; Zhang, Qing-Ying; Wang, Lu; Guo, Rong; Zhan, Yi-Xun; Lv, Pin; Xu, Yan-Ping; Guo, Meng-Bi; Zhang, Yuan; Zhang, Kun; Liu, Yan-Hu; Yang, Ming (2022). "Whole-genome resequencing of wild and cultivated cannabis reveals the genetic structure and adaptive selection of important traits". BMC Plant Biology. 22 (1) 371. doi:10.1186/s12870-022-03744-0.
  17. ↑ "黑龙江省2026年纤维汉麻生产技术指导意见" [Technical guidance for fibre hemp production in Heilongjiang Province, 2026] (in 中文). 黑龙江省农业农村厅. 11 May 2026. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Kreutzmann, Hermann (2026). "Hashish and opium trade along the roads to Kashgar and Yarkand". In Mirsultan, Aysima; Moll-Murata, Christine (eds.). Transactions in Xinjiang: Cultural, Socio-Economic, and Historical Sources on the Chinese Western Regions (1750–1976). Fachinformationsdienst (FID) Asien. pp. 77–85. doi:10.48796/20260409-006.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Chopra, I. C.; Chopra, R. N. (1957). "The use of the cannabis drugs in India". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 4–29.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Hosie, Alexander (1922). Szechwan: Its Products, Industries and Resources (PDF). Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh – via Wikimedia Commons.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Clarke, Robert C. (1995). "Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation in the Tai'an District of Shandong Province, Peoples Republic of China" (PDF). Journal of the International Hemp Association. 2 (2): 57, 60–65 – via Vote Hemp.
  22. ↑ 国家统计局; 国务院第七次全国人口普查领导小组办公室 (11 May 2021). "第七次全国人口普查公报（第二号）" [Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 2)] (in 中文). 国家统计局. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "【香格里拉故事】纳西族传统纺麻技艺" [Shangri-La stories: the traditional Naxi hemp-spinning craft]. 澎湃新闻 (in 中文). 香格里拉发布. 19 August 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Geng, Yanfei; Zhang, Yu; Ranjitkar, Sailesh; Huai, Huyin; Wang, Yuhua (2016). "Traditional knowledge and its transmission of wild edibles used by the Naxi in Baidi Village, northwest Yunnan province". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 12 (1) 10. doi:10.1186/s13002-016-0082-2.
  25. ↑ Li, Haitao; Li, Zhiyong; Zhang, Xiaobo; Yang, Shaohua; Chen, Cui; Yang, Qingning; He, Chengfeng; Liu, Jianqin; Song, Jingyuan (2021). "Ethnobiological study on traditional medicinal plants and fungi recorded in the Naxi Dongba sutras". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 17 (1) 32. doi:10.1186/s13002-021-00459-8.
  26. ↑ "苗族服饰（昌宁苗族服饰）" [Miao costume (Changning Miao costume)]. 中国非物质文化遗产网 (in 中文). X-65. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  27. ↑ "传统棉纺织技艺（傈僳族火草织布技艺）" [Traditional cotton spinning and weaving (Lisu huocao cloth weaving)]. 中国非物质文化遗产网 (in 中文). VIII-100. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  28. ↑ Sato, Wakana (2018). 宮脇千絵『装いの民族誌―中国雲南省モンの「民族衣装」をめぐる実践』 [Review of Miyawaki Chie, Ethnography of Dress: Practices Related to "Ethnic Dress" among the Hmong in Yunnan, China]. 東南アジア研究 [Japanese Journal of Southeast Asian Studies] (in 日本語). 55 (2): 412–414. doi:10.20495/tak.55.2_412.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Sun, Jingxian; Xiong, Yong; Li, Yanhong; Yang, Qingsong; Chen, Yijian; Jiang, Mengyuan; Li, Yukui; Li, Hongrui; Bi, Zizhen; Huang, Xiangzhong; Lu, Shugang (2020). "Medicinal dietary plants of the Yi in Mile, Yunnan, China". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 16 (1) 48. doi:10.1186/s13002-020-00400-5.
  30. ↑ Addi, Yi-Won; Zhang, Yu; Ding, Xiao-Yong; Guo, Chang-An; Wang, Yu-Hua (2022). "A study of the plant folk nomenclature of the Yi people in Xiaoliangshan, Yunnan Province, China, and the implications for protecting biodiversity". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 18 (1) 18. doi:10.1186/s13002-022-00504-0.
  31. ↑ Xiong, Yong; Long, Chunlin (2020). "An ethnoveterinary study on medicinal plants used by the Buyi people in Southwest Guizhou, China". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 16 (1) 46. doi:10.1186/s13002-020-00396-y.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Hu, Renchuan; Xu, Chuangui; Nong, You; Luo, Binsheng (2023). "Changes in homegardens in relocation villages, a case study in the Baiku Yao area in Southern China". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 19 (1) 7. doi:10.1186/s13002-023-00578-4.
  33. ↑ Luo, Binsheng; Tong, Yuanming; Liu, Yujing; Zhang, Ying; Qin, Yixin; Hu, Renchuan (2024). "Ethnobotanical insights into the traditional food plants of the Baiku Yao community: a study of cultural significance, utilization, and conservation". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 20 (1) 52. doi:10.1186/s13002-024-00691-y.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Hu, Hongxing; Zhang, Guanbai; Hao, Wei (2015). 中国新疆大麻使用及相关问题的历史与现状 [History and current status of cannabis use and related problems in Xinjiang, China]. 中国药物依赖性杂志 [Chinese Journal of Drug Dependence] (in 中文) (4): 241–243, 287. ISSN 1007-9718. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via 杜新忠戒毒网.
  35. ↑ 賈公彥 (Jia Gongyan). "卷五：天官·疾醫". 周禮注疏 [Commentary and Subcommentary on the Rites of Zhou] (in 中文). Annotation by Zheng Xuan (Siku quanshu ed.). Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikisource.
  36. ↑ 吳其濬 (Wu Qijun) (1957) [1848]. "卷之一：大麻". 植物名實圖考 [Illustrated Investigation of the Names and Realities of Plants] (in 中文). Shanghai: Commercial Press. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikisource.
  37. ↑ "FAOSTAT: Crops and livestock products". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 黑龙江省农业农村厅 (27 December 2021). "关于印发《黑龙江省"十四五"特色经济作物发展规划》的通知" [Notice on issuing the Heilongjiang Province 14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Special Cash Crops]. 黑龙江省人民政府网 (in 中文). 黑农厅发〔2021〕329号. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  39. ↑ "云南省工业大麻行业协会在昆成立" [Yunnan Industrial Hemp Industry Association founded in Kunming]. 人民网云南频道 (in 中文). 30 October 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  40. ↑ Shen, Shicai; Xu, Gaofeng; Li, Diyu; Clements, David Roy; Zhang, Fudou; Jin, Guimei; Wu, Jianyong; Wei, Pingfang; Lin, Song; Xue, Dayuan (2017). "Agrobiodiversity and in situ conservation in ethnic minority communities of Xishuangbanna in Yunnan Province, Southwest China". Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 13 (1) 28. doi:10.1186/s13002-017-0158-7.
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  99. ↑ "World Drug Report 2024, statistical annex 6.3.1: cannabis cultivation, production and eradication, latest year available from the period 2013–2022". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2024. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
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  101. ↑ "新疆生产建设兵团第五师博乐垦区公安局铲除万株野生大麻" [Public security bureau of the Bole reclamation area, Fifth Division of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, eradicates wild cannabis]. 中国禁毒网 (in 中文). 7 July 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
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