Xinjiang
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| Xinjiang | |
|---|---|
| 新疆维吾尔自治区 | |
| Autonomous region | |
| General | |
| Coordinates | 41.00, 85.00 |
| Country | China |
| Region | Northwest China |
| Formed | 1 October 1955 |
| Administration | |
| Capital | Ürümqi |
| Prefecture-level divisions | 1(14 prefecture-level divisions) |
| Demographics | |
| Population(2020 census) | |
| Total | 25,852,345 |
| Urban | 56.53% |
| Rural | 43.47% |
| Geography | |
| Area | |
| Total | 1,664,900 km² |
| Cannabis documentation | |
| Growing regions | 0 |
| Growing areas | 0 |
| Appellations | 0 |
| Accessions | 11 |
| Eradication campaigns | 3 |
| News items | 4 |
| Research items | 0 |
Xinjiang (新疆, Xīnjiāng), officially the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (新疆维吾尔自治区), is a first-level division of China in the north-west of the country, established on 1 October 1955 with its capital at Ürümqi. Its 1.6649 million km² are about one sixth of China's land area. It borders eight countries.[1] English writers of the 19th and early 20th centuries called the region Sinkiang or Chinese Turkistan.[2]
The oases of southern Xinjiang supplied the resin charas that traders carried to British India, much of it through Leh, until a Chinese prohibition ended the export in the 1930s.[3]: 78, 82–83[4][2] Cemeteries of the first millennium BCE in the Turpan basin and the Pamirs have yielded cannabis from burials.[5][6] The regional government prohibited cultivation in 1985 and passed regulations against cannabis in 1991.[7] Police in the north have reported clearing more than 20,000 wild plants in single operations.[8][9]
Geography
Xinjiang lies in the interior of Eurasia. Within China it adjoins Tibet, Qinghai and Gansu; abroad it borders Mongolia, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.[1] The Tian Shan runs east to west across the middle of the region between the Altai on the north and the Kunlun on the south. It divides the region into southern Xinjiang (南疆, Nánjiāng) and northern Xinjiang (北疆, Běijiāng). The south holds the Tarim Basin and, at its centre, the Taklamakan Desert.[1]
The Indian hemp of high quality exported to British India came from "the oases in Southern Xinjiang".[3]: 78 Hu, Zhang and Hao, writing in 2015, place the main producing counties of máyān (麻烟), cannabis prepared for smoking, in the south: Yarkand (Shache), Makit, Yengisar, Maralbexi, Kargilik, Yopurga, Guma, Kuqa and Bügür. In their account the plant also grows in northern and eastern Xinjiang, but the resin made there is much poorer than the southern product.[10]
In the north, herbarium sheets were gathered in Dzungaria and in the Bogda Shan.[11][12] Border police in the north clear stands of wild cannabis.[8][13]
Administrative subdivisions
Xinjiang is divided into 14 prefecture-level units: the cities of Ürümqi, Karamay, Turpan and Hami; the autonomous prefectures of Ili Kazakh, Bortala Mongol, Changji Hui, Bayingolin Mongol and Kizilsu Kyrgyz; and the prefectures of Aksu, Kashgar, Hotan, Tacheng and Altay.[1]
Subdivisions documented on the wiki:
| Subdivision |
|---|
| Ürümqi |
Demographics
Population
The 2020 census counted 25,852,345 people in Xinjiang. Of these, 10,920,098 (42.24 per cent) were Han and 14,932,247 (57.76 per cent) belonged to minority nationalities, among them 11,624,257 Uyghurs, 44.96 per cent of the total. The urban population was 14,613,622, or 56.53 per cent.[14] The main nationalities listed by the regional government are the Uyghur, Han, Kazakh, Mongol, Hui, Kyrgyz, Manchu, Xibe, Tajik, Daur, Uzbek, Tatar and Russian.[1]
Languages
The region's language regulations, as revised in 2015, require its organs of self-government to use the national common language and Uyghur together in their work and allow other languages where needed.[15] In his handbook of the trade products of Leh (1874), J. E. T. Aitchison recorded the Turki names kandir for the plant and nasha for its resin extract.[16]: 52
Communities with cannabis relationships
Indian traders carried the charas to British India. Their communities and financiers came from Amritsar and Hoshiarpur in Punjab and some from Bajaur and Kashmir; their moneylenders came from Punjab and Sindh.[3]: 79 The British consul-general at Kashgar, Kenneth Packman, reported in July 1937 that the traders in Sinkiang were "mostly Hoshiarpuri Hindus, with a few Kashmiris and some Bajauri drug-pedlars".[3]: 79
Writing in 2015 on cannabis abuse in the region, the psychiatrists Hu, Zhang and Hao reported that many older people in Xinjiang smoked cannabis to refresh themselves, sharpen the appetite and aid digestion and did not regard it as a drug. Many Uyghurs, they added, used cannabis directly to treat certain illnesses, one reason in their view why the mental disorders it caused could not be counted accurately.[10]
Agriculture
Xinjiang produced 6.165 million tonnes of cotton in 2025, 8.4 per cent more than in 2024.[17]
Around Yarkand in 1870, Douglas Forsyth's mission found hemp "grown on the borders of every field".[18]: 28 Aitchison described it planted in single rows around other crops.[16]: 51–52
Cannabis in Xinjiang
History
At the Yanghai Tombs in the Turpan basin a cache of shoots, leaves and fruits lay in a grave dated by radiocarbon to about 2500 years before present;[5] Russo and colleagues later put the age of the grave at 2700 years and found tetrahydrocannabinol and its degradation product cannabinol in the plant material; DNA analysis also identified THCA synthase.[19] At the Jiayi cemetery near Turpan, tomb M231, of 2800 to 2400 years ago, held 13 nearly whole plants laid over the body of a man as a shroud; the excavators judged that they "appear to have been locally produced".[20] At the Jirzankal Cemetery in Tashkurgan, in the Pamirs, wooden braziers of about 500 BCE carry chemical residues of burnt cannabis.[6] Hemp fibre has also been identified in figurines of the 3rd to 9th centuries from the Astana cemeteries at Turpan.[21]
Hu, Zhang and Hao date the arrival of cannabis smoking to the 16th and 17th centuries, when it came from India together with mohe (莫合烟, mòhéyān), a coarse tobacco of the crushed stems and leaves of Nicotiana rustica. By the 18th century, they write, it had spread across the region, first among the elite and the wealthy and then among the middle and lower strata; smoking it was then as ordinary as smoking mohe.[10][7] Under Qing rule the taxes of Yarkand were stated to have included hemp.[18]: 33
On the rule of Yakub Beg in Kashgaria the British accounts differ. Aitchison wrote that the ruler had prohibited cultivation in regular fields,[16]: 51–52 while H. W. Bellew, who visited Kashgar with the embassy of 1873–74, wrote that opium and hemp were "set under no restrictions" while liquor was suppressed; he judged hemp to be "abused to an alarming extent".[22]: 383 In 1909 the end of charas cultivation in Yarkand was announced, "only to be denounced the next year".[3]: 82
China reported to the League of Nations that an analysis by the National Health Administration in 1933 had found the wild hemp of Sinkiang "homogenous" with Cannabis indica, that "Indian hemp" had then been listed among the narcotic drugs and that in 1934 the government had sent circular instructions to the provinces and municipalities for its suppression.[2] When the export ended is reported three ways. A study by the United Nations Secretariat (1953) concluded that the provincial government of Sinkiang prohibited the export of charas in 1934 on national instructions, although the effect took several years to be felt.[2] Kreutzmann describes an export duty raised in 1936 from 20 to 200 rupees a pony load, after which exports "nearly collapsed and never recovered". He also reports a speech by the head of the Kashgar administration in January 1936 declaring "The sale and transmission (export) of opium, Charas and wine is prohibited from today"; proclamations set three years' imprisonment and a fine of 300 dollars, with execution for second offenders.[3]: 80, 82–83 I. C. and R. N. Chopra date the end of charas imports into India to about 1934–35.[4]
Nikolai Vavilov travelled through the region in 1929 with M. G. Popov, visiting Kashgar, Uch-Turfan, Aksu, Kucha, Ürümqi, Kulja, Yarkand and Hotan.[23]: 157 In 1945 the Nationalist chairman of Xinjiang, Zhang Zhizhong, began a campaign against opium and máyān; in June 1946 he publicly burned confiscated opium, máyān and smoking utensils in Ürümqi.[7]
After 1949, according to Zhou Limin, growing cannabis and making and smoking máyān stayed common in remote villages. From the mid-1960s into the 1970s most growers grew it for themselves and their companions and very rarely sold it.[7] Hu, Zhang and Hao report large plantings in the 1950s and 1960s at Kashgar, Hotan, Makit, Yengisar, Maralbexi, Aksu, Toksu, Kuqa, Bügür and Korla. An incomplete count of 1990 found more than 10,000 growers in Xinjiang, more than 1,000 makers of máyān and at least 1,000 sellers.[10]
Cultivation
I. C. and R. N. Chopra wrote in 1957 that the highest yield and best quality of charas came from plants grown in Yarkand, where the plant grew wild in quantity at 3,000 to 5,000 feet (900 to 1,500 m) and was also cultivated. The plant reached 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 m) and its tops were gathered in September and October.[4] High-quality charas came from Khan-Arik, between Yarkand and Kashgar.[3]: 80 In Aitchison's account the finest came from Karmak near Yang Hissar (Yengisar), with more from Postgraum and Kurgilik.[16]: 52 At Sanju, Bellew wrote, hemp was grown for its resin, "a staple export to India".[22]: 222 Vavilov wrote in 1931 that "The vacant lots of Yarkand are full of hemp thickets."[24]
On one of his 1928 sheets from the Bogda Shan, David Hummel queried whether the plant was cultivated.[12] T. T. Trofimov collected his 1940 specimen in sown fields in a village of the Khotan district.[25]
McPartland and Small place the herbarium specimens of the 19th and early 20th centuries from Xinjiang in their var. afghanica, a domesticate of Central Asia cultivated for sieved hashish (nasha, charas) and sometimes for seed oil. They figure a Yarkand specimen collected by Henderson in 1871.[26]: 92, 99
Preparations and consumption
Yarkand charas, in the Chopras' account, was made from dried female flower heads, crushed by hand and sieved, stored in rawhide bags through the winter, warmed in the sun until the resin softened and kneaded with wooden rods.[4] The finest, from Karmak, went in balls to Bukhara and Kokand.[16]: 52
Locally, máyān was smoked rolled into mohe tobacco.[10] China's report to the League of Nations for 1935 described a coat "of velvet-like substance" on each leaf of the Sinkiang plant, "scraped off, mixed with tobacco".[2]
Religious and cultural use
Jiang and colleagues took the Yanghai cache to have been used for ritual or medicinal purposes, given the shamanistic setting of the grave;[5] Russo and colleagues proposed that it was used "as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination".[19] The team that studied the Jiayi shroud concluded that the people of the region used cannabis for ritual or medicinal purposes in the first millennium BCE.[20] For Ren and colleagues the residues in the Jirzankal braziers are "some of the earliest directly dated and scientifically verified evidence for ritual cannabis smoking".[6]
Trade and commerce
The charas of British India came from Sinkiang, with Yarkand the centre of the trade.[2] Bellew called "the hemp resin, or bang, of Yarkand" the principal export towards Kashmir and the Panjab.[22]: 7 Forsyth's mission found charas the leading export from Yarkand to India in 1870.[18]: 28 Most of the charas reached India through Leh in Ladakh,[4] where Aitchison counted 9,134 maunds entering in six years.[16]: 51–52 In 1881 the British Joint Commissioner in Ladakh reported charas produced at Yarkand, Yengi Hissar, Kashgar and Khotan.[27]
From 1895 to 1939 silk yarn and charas were "by far" the two major exports from Xinjiang to British India.[3]: 80 India formerly permitted the import of 70,000 kg a year. Imports reached 91,471 kg in 1930, 97,949 kg in 1931 and 62,380 kg in 1932.[2] Exports nearly doubled between 1927 and 1928 after India cut its import duty from 60 to 20 rupees: "for one maund" in Kreutzmann's account,[3]: 80 "per seer" in India's annual report quoted by the United Nations Secretariat.[2] After the Chinese prohibition, Kashmir State considered making charas itself in 1940.[2]
On 29 and 30 October 2007 police in Ürümqi found 4,848 kg of cannabis resin and 67.5 kg of heroin concealed in 310 fibreboard panels, shipped by container from Afghanistan through Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Alashankou; the regional narcotics police called it the largest single seizure since China's "people's war" (人民战争) on drugs began. The Afghan organiser was arrested in Beijing on 6 March 2008.[28]
Legal status
Cannabis is controlled under national law, which has named it among the narcotic drugs since the Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of 28 December 1990 (see Cannabis law in China).[29] Xinjiang's regional government prohibited the cultivation of cannabis by a notice of 1985.[7] Its regulations of 1991, as amended in 1997, ordered cultivated plants to be eradicated compulsorily and required local governments and village committees to organise the prompt eradication of wild plants.[30] Zhou Limin calls the regulations the first relatively systematic local regulations of their kind in China.[7]
Reported clearances of wild stands in northern Xinjiang include:
- 24 June 2016, Bole reclamation area of the Production and Construction Corps: more than 100,000 wild plants.[31]
- June 2022, Horgos: more than 8,000 plants in fields, after the border police had ruled out planting.[32]
- 16 August 2023, the Jeminay port in Altay: more than 20,000 plants in a remote forest belt.[8]
- 30 August 2024, Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County in Ili: more than 20,000 plants by field roads, found to be growing naturally.[13]
- 26 June 2025, Hutubi County in Changji: more than 20,000 plants in one morning, by nearly 100 police officers.[9]
- Reported 1 July 2026, Midong district of Ürümqi: more than 200,000 plants in a continuous stand on the hillsides around Baiyanghe; the district police warned that letting wild plants grow was itself unlawful.[33]
Growing Regions
No growing regions documented yet.
Growing Areas
No growing areas documented yet.
Accessions
Larionov 65 (1876) was gathered near Kuldja in Dzungaria and determined by Ernest Small in 1975 as var. spontanea.[11][34] A. Regel collected Regel s.n., Bortala (1878) on the lower Bortala.[35] The mission of Paul Pelliot and Louis Vaillant collected Pelliot 121 (1906) at Kashgar.[36] David Hummel of Sven Hedin's Sino-Swedish Expedition gathered five sheets in the Bogda Shan between June and August 1928 that the Swedish Museum of Natural History catalogues under Cannabis: 164, 679, 874, 908 and 909.[37][38][12][39][40] Trofimov s.n., Hotan (1940), from the Khotan district, was determined by its collector as var. spontanea.[25][41] The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew holds an undated sample of seed from Yarkand, EBC 71830 (s.d.).[42]
| Accession ID | Name | Priority | Collected | Area |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| EBC 71830 (s.d.) | Kew Economic Botany object 71830, hemp seed from Yarkand | |||
| Hummel 164 (1928) | Hummel 164 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928) | |||
| Hummel 679 (1928) | Hummel 679 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928) | |||
| Hummel 874 (1928) | Hummel 874 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928) | |||
| Hummel 908 (1928) | Hummel 908 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928) | |||
| Hummel 909 (1928) | Hummel 909 herbarium specimen, Bogdo Ola (1928) | |||
| Larionov 65 (1876) | Larionov 65 herbarium specimen, Chulak-terek river, Kuldja (1876) | |||
| Liou 3403 (1931) | Liou 3403 herbarium specimen, Sinkiang (1931) | |||
| Pelliot 121 (1906) | Pelliot 121 herbarium specimen, Kashgar (1906) | |||
| Regel s.n., Bortala (1878) | Regel s.n. herbarium specimen, lower Bortala (1878) | |||
| Trofimov s.n., Hotan (1940) | Trofimov herbarium specimen, Khotan district (1940) |
Conservation status
In the Flora of China, Cannabis sativa is cultivated throughout China and "native or naturalized in Xinjiang".[43] McPartland and Small cite specimens of their wild-type var. asperrima from Xinjiang and place the Tian Shan within its range.[26]: 101–102
Zhang and colleagues (2018) sampled 116 plants from six populations in Xinjiang between 43.25°N and 48.20°N, among 25 wild populations from seven provinces and regions which in their words are "the only distribution ranges of extant wild Cannabis throughout China".[44] Chen and colleagues (2022) included two wild (or feral) accessions from Xinjiang. The wild and feral plants of Xinjiang and Xizang (Tibet) formed a group of their own in their analysis. The authors found that "wild-growing resources collected from Xinjiang, NE China and Xizang had the typical characteristics of wild plants".[45] A whole-genome study of 2021 by Ren and colleagues concluded that all the feral plants it studied, from China and Central Asia, were "not wild types, but historical escapes from domesticated forms".[46]
Recent news
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 "新疆概况" [Overview of Xinjiang]. 新疆维吾尔自治区人民政府网 (in 中文). 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 United Nations Secretariat (1953). "The surprising extinction of the charas traffic". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 1–7.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Kreutzmann, Hermann (2026). "Hashish and opium trade along the roads to Kashgar and Yarkand". In Mirsultan, Aysima; Moll-Murata, Christine (eds.). Transactions in Xinjiang: Cultural, Socio-Economic, and Historical Sources on the Chinese Western Regions (1750–1976). Fachinformationsdienst (FID) Asien. pp. 77–85. doi:10.48796/20260409-006.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Chopra, I. C.; Chopra, R. N. (1957). "The use of the cannabis drugs in India". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 4–29.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Jiang, Hong-En; Li, Xiao; Zhao, You-Xing; Ferguson, David K.; Hueber, Francis; Bera, Subir; Wang, Yu-Fei; Zhao, Liang-Cheng; Liu, Chang-Jiang; Li, Cheng-Sen (2006). "A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai Tombs, Xinjiang, China". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 108 (3): 414–422. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Ren, Meng; Tang, Zihua; Wu, Xinhua; Spengler, Robert; Jiang, Hongen; Yang, Yimin; Boivin, Nicole (2019). "The origins of cannabis smoking: chemical residue evidence from the first millennium BCE in the Pamirs". Science Advances. 5 (6) eaaw1391. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw1391.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Zhou, Limin (2015). 我国大麻滥用的历史和现状 [History and current state of cannabis abuse in China]. 中国药物依赖性杂志 [Chinese Journal of Drug Dependence] (in 中文) (5): 327–331. ISSN 1007-9718. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via 杜新忠戒毒网.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "新疆民警铲除野生大麻原植物20000余株" [Xinjiang police eradicate more than 20,000 wild cannabis plants]. 央视网 (in 中文). 18 August 2023. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 "呼图壁县开展"6·26"国际禁毒日主题活动 铲除野生大麻2万多株" [Hutubi County marks the International Day against Drug Abuse and clears more than 20,000 wild cannabis plants]. 中新网新疆 (in 中文). 28 June 2025. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Hu, Hongxing; Zhang, Guanbai; Hao, Wei (2015). 中国新疆大麻使用及相关问题的历史与现状 [History and current status of cannabis use and related problems in Xinjiang, China]. 中国药物依赖性杂志 [Chinese Journal of Drug Dependence] (in 中文) (4): 241–243, 287. ISSN 1007-9718. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via 杜新忠戒毒网.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Specimen MW0736231: Cannabis sativa L." Moscow Digital Herbarium. Moscow State University. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "Occurrence 1095994974: Cannabis L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 邓宇 (4 September 2024). "新疆伊犁："毒草"横行 警民携手铲除野生大麻原植物2万余株" [Ili, Xinjiang: police and residents clear more than 20,000 wild cannabis plants]. 中新网新疆 (in 中文). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "新疆维吾尔自治区第七次全国人口普查主要数据" [Main data of the seventh national census of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region] (in 中文). 新疆维吾尔自治区统计局. 14 June 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 新疆维吾尔自治区人民代表大会常务委员会 (25 September 1993). "新疆维吾尔自治区语言文字工作条例" [Regulations of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region on Language and Script Work] (as revised 21 September 2015) (in 中文). Retrieved 13 October 2026 – via 克孜勒苏柯尔克孜自治州人民政府.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Aitchison, J. E. T. (1874). Hand-book of the Trade Products of Leh, with the Statistics of the Trade, from 1867 to 1872 Inclusive (PDF). Calcutta: Wyman & Co. – via Wikimedia Commons.
- ↑ 新疆维吾尔自治区统计局; 国家统计局新疆调查总队 (20 March 2026). "新疆维吾尔自治区2025年国民经济和社会发展统计公报" [Statistical communiqué of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region on national economic and social development in 2025]. 新疆日报 (in 中文). p. A03. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Yarkand (Forsyth's Mission): Copy or Extracts of Correspondence relating to the Mission of Mr. Douglas Forsyth to Yarkand (PDF). London: India Office. 1871 – via Wikimedia Commons.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Russo, Ethan B.; Jiang, Hong-En; Li, Xiao; et al. (2008). "Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from Central Asia". Journal of Experimental Botany. 59 (15): 4171–4182. doi:10.1093/jxb/ern260. PMC 2639026.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Jiang, Hongen; Wang, Long; Merlin, Mark D.; Clarke, Robert C.; Pan, Yan; Zhang, Yong; Xiao, Guoqiang; Ding, Xiaolian (2016). "Ancient Cannabis burial shroud in a Central Eurasian cemetery". Economic Botany. 70 (3): 213–221. doi:10.1007/s12231-016-9351-1.
- ↑ Chen, Tao; Yao, Shuwen; Merlin, Mark; Mai, Huijuan; Qiu, Zhenwei; Hu, Yaowu; Wang, Bo; Wang, Changsui; Jiang, Hongen (2014). "Identification of Cannabis fiber from the Astana cemeteries, Xinjiang, China, with reference to its unique decorative utilization". Economic Botany. 68 (1): 59–66. doi:10.1007/s12231-014-9261-z.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Bellew, H. W. (1875). Kashmir and Kashghar: A Narrative of the Journey of the Embassy to Kashghar in 1873–74 (PDF). London: Trübner & Co. – via Wikimedia Commons.
- ↑ Loskutov, Igor G. (1999). Vavilov and his Institute: a history of the world collection of plant genetic resources in Russia. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. ISBN 92-9043-412-0.
- ↑ McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144. Supplementary material 1. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Specimen MW0736230: Cannabis sativa L." Moscow Digital Herbarium. Moscow State University. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144: 81–112. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. VII, "Trade and movement of the hemp drugs", paras. 293–295, pp. 111–112 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ 毛咏 (1 June 2008). "新疆警方破获多起跨国贩毒案记事" [An account of transnational drug-trafficking cases solved by the Xinjiang police] (in 中文). 新华网. Retrieved 13 October 2026 – via 杜新忠戒毒网.
- ↑ "全国人民代表大会常务委员会关于禁毒的决定" [Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress on the Prohibition of Narcotic Drugs]. 全国人民代表大会常务委员会公报 [Gazette of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress] (in 中文). 全国人民代表大会. 28 December 1990. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ 新疆维吾尔自治区人民代表大会常务委员会 (2 November 1991). "新疆维吾尔自治区禁止大麻毒品条例" [Regulations of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region on the Prohibition of Cannabis Drugs] (as amended 11 December 1997) (in 中文). Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikisource.
- ↑ "新疆生产建设兵团第五师博乐垦区公安局铲除万株野生大麻" [Public security bureau of the Bole reclamation area, Fifth Division of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, eradicates wild cannabis]. 中国禁毒网 (in 中文). 7 July 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ "铲除野生大麻 开展禁毒宣传" [Eradicating wild cannabis and carrying out drug-control publicity] (in 中文). 霍尔果斯市人民政府. 13 June 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ "乌鲁木齐20万株野生大麻被铲除！绿化带竟藏"毒隐患"？这个知识要了解→" [200,000 wild cannabis plants eradicated in Ürümqi]. 南方网 (in 中文). 1 July 2026. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 1697853650: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 731731223: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 731738819: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 1095994960: Cannabis L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 1095994957: Cannabis L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 1095994991: Cannabis L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 1096610883: Cannabis L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 1697853626: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ "Seed, catalogue number 71830". Economic Botany Collection. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ Wu, Zhengyi; Zhou, Zhe-Kun; Bartholomew, Bruce. "Cannabis sativa". Flora of China, Vol. 5. p. 75. Retrieved 11 October 2026 – via eFloras.org.
- ↑ Zhang, Q.; Chen, X.; Guo, H.; Trindade, L.M.; Salentijn, E.M.J.; Guo, R.; Guo, M.; Xu, Y.; Yang, M. (2018). "Latitudinal adaptation and genetic insights into the origins of Cannabis sativa L." Frontiers in Plant Science. 9 1876. doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.01876.
- ↑ Chen, Xuan; Guo, Hong-Yan; Zhang, Qing-Ying; Wang, Lu; Guo, Rong; Zhan, Yi-Xun; Lv, Pin; Xu, Yan-Ping; Guo, Meng-Bi; Zhang, Yuan; Zhang, Kun; Liu, Yan-Hu; Yang, Ming (2022). "Whole-genome resequencing of wild and cultivated cannabis reveals the genetic structure and adaptive selection of important traits". BMC Plant Biology. 22 (1) 371. doi:10.1186/s12870-022-03744-0.
- ↑ Ren, G.; Zhang, X.; Li, Y.; Ridout, K.; Serrano-Serrano, M.L.; Yang, Y.; Liu, A.; Ravikanth, G.; Nawaz, M.A.; Mumtaz, A.S.; Salamin, N.; Fumagalli, L. (2021). "Large-scale whole-genome resequencing unravels the domestication history of Cannabis sativa". Science Advances. 7 (29) eabg2286. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg2286.