Jump to content
Toggle search
Toggle menu
  • 5.4K articles
  • 1.9K files
  • 88 users
  • 46.2K edits
Landrace.wiki
Toggle preferences menu
Toggle personal menu
Not logged in
Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits.

Ernest Small

From Landrace.wiki
More actions
Ernest Small
Herbarium sheet with a short section of thick stem and a long, thin flowering branch strapped to the mount, with a typed label at the lower right.
A voucher from Small's 1971 garden at the Central Experimental Farm in Ottawa: population 166, grown from seed of ruderal plants of the Delhi area sent by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (New York Botanical Garden 01801591, CC BY 4.0)
Born 1940
Nationality Canadian
Occupation Botanist
Institutions Research Branch, Canada Department of Agriculture (later Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada), Ottawa
Known for The treatment of Cannabis as one species with two subspecies (with Arthur Cronquist, 1976); the classification of high-THC cannabis (with John McPartland, 2020)
Collector name on accessions E. Small
Botanical author abbreviation E. Small

Ernest Small (born 1940) is a Canadian botanist who has worked since 1969 in the research branch of the federal agriculture department in Ottawa, now Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, where he holds the status of principal research scientist.[1][2] In 1971 he grew several hundred seed stocks of Cannabis side by side in Ottawa and measured their cannabinoids. From that survey he and H.D. Beckstead defined three chemotypes.[3]: 23[4] He testified for the prosecution in American trials in which defendants argued that their cannabis was not Cannabis sativa.[5] In 1976, with Arthur Cronquist, he treated the genus as a single species with two subspecies separated at 0.3 per cent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).[6] In 2020 he and John McPartland divided the high-THC subspecies into four varieties, two domesticated and two wild-growing.[6]

His label name is E. Small.[2] His determinations of the mid-1970s are on cannabis sheets in New York, Vienna and Harvard. In 2020 he and McPartland chose five specimens as types of their varieties.

Agriculture Canada and the Le Dain Commission

Small took a doctorate in plant evolution at the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1969 and joined the research branch of the federal Department of Agriculture.[1] His degrees are a BA, a BSc, an MSc and the PhD. In 1975 he was at the department's Biosystematics Research Institute in Ottawa.[5] His herbarium collections are at DAO, a herbarium in Ottawa.[7]

He was a research associate of the federal Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs, the Le Dain Commission.[5] Its report on cannabis (1972) acknowledged his work for its account of the botany and cultivation of the plant.[3]: 6 The report's bibliography lists two unpublished papers by him: "An agricultural perspective of marijuana" (a commission research paper of May 1971) and an interim report of December 1971 on the studies of cannabis that the Departments of Agriculture and of National Health and Welfare were making together.[3]

The American Society of Plant Taxonomists gave him its George R. Cooley Award for 1974, an award for a paper by an early-career member, for "The systematics of Cannabis".[8] The Canadian Botanical Association awarded him its Lawson Medal in 1995 for lifetime achievement in botany.[9] He was appointed a Member of the Order of Canada on 6 December 2017. The citation names his research on the evolution and classification of food, forage and medicinal plants and calls him best known for his work on hemp and medicinal marijuana.[10] His Top 100 Food Plants won the Lane Anderson Award for books published in 2009.[1][11] He wrote the account of the genus Cannabis for the Flora of North America.[12] The publisher of his 2017 book credits him with 14 earlier books and more than 350 scientific publications on plants, more than 40 of them on Cannabis.[1]

The Ottawa garden, 1971 to 1973

Main article: Chemotype

A joint project of the Department of Agriculture and the Department of National Health and Welfare grew several hundred strains of cannabis at the Experimental Farm in Ottawa in 1971.[3]: 22–23 Small planted the stocks on 1 June 1971 in a garden at the Central Experimental Farm and harvested them between August and mid-September.[13][14] The voucher labels give the number of the population and the plant, the source of the seed and the mean cannabinoid content of the population.[13][15] The label headings call the planting a "Biosystematic Survey of 350 Stocks of Cannabis".[13] Some European stocks were grown only from 28 July to 15 September, a short part of the season. They too were analysed for their cannabinoids.[16]

Botanical gardens and plant-breeding institutes in Europe, Asia and North America sent the seed. Suppliers included the Indian Agricultural Research Institute in New Delhi, with seed of ruderal plants of the Delhi area;[13] a crop research centre at İzmir in Turkey, through the Food and Agriculture Organization;[17] the Institute of Botany of the Academia Sinica in Beijing;[14] the University of Mississippi, with a Mexican variant from its campus garden;[18] and a forensic laboratory in Rhodesia, with seed intercepted in the illicit trade.[19] French, Italian and Polish hemp cultivars such as 'Fibrimon 24', 'Carmagnola' and 'Bialobrzeskie' grew beside them.[20][21][22] In 1973 he raised plants in a greenhouse in Ottawa from seed that the Laboratory of the Government Chemist had intercepted in the illicit trade in England, recorded as from Uganda, the Cameroons and Afghanistan. The plants were high in THC and held little or no cannabidiol (CBD).[23][24][25] The New York Botanical Garden and the herbarium of the University of South Florida hold more than 570 vouchers from these plantings.[26]

The THC content of the strains grown at the farm in 1971 ranged from near zero to close to 3 per cent. Small and his associates examined over 300 strains and confirmed two opposite types, one with cannabinoids composed mainly of CBD and the other mainly of THC, with a full range of intermediates between them. Wild plants and stocks from north of latitude 30° N were mostly of the CBD type; stocks from further south held appreciably more THC.[3]: 23 Small and H.D. Beckstead published the survey in 1973 in Nature and in Lloydia.[27][6] They divided the plants into three chemotypes by the ratio of THC to CBD: type I high in THC (above 0.3 per cent) and low in CBD (below 0.5 per cent); type II high in both; type III high in CBD and low in THC.[4] In 1975 Small reported that about 2,500 plants from the garden had been scored for 47 characters, all grown together so that differences between them were not effects of the environment.[5] He, P.Y. Jui and L.P. Lefkovitch published a numerical taxonomic analysis of the genus in 1976.[28]

The species question in court

In the first half of the 1970s defendants in American marijuana trials argued that their material came from C. indica or C. ruderalis, species that statutes naming C. sativa L. did not cover.[5] In United States v. Rothberg (1972), in the Eastern District of New York, the government offered Small's testimony against the defence experts Richard Evans Schultes and William Klein. He testified that by both biological and morphological criteria C. indica was not a separate species. In his opinion botanists in the English-speaking world held the genus to have a single species in 1937, when Congress legislated. He contended that all populations of Cannabis interbreed. He also agreed that taxonomy is a somewhat subjective and arbitrary art. The court called Cronquist as its own witness and excluded all expert testimony on the number of species from the jury.[29]

Small wrote in the UN Bulletin on Narcotics in 1975 that he and Cronquist had testified for the state on numerous occasions. In his account, the argument had not defeated the law in any case where the state was adequately informed on the botany, although some cases had been dismissed where it was not. He called the defence presentations seriously deficient. His aim was to answer the claim that the legislation was defective in its terminology.[5] His publisher's biography credits him with dozens of court appearances as an expert botanical witness.[1] He returned to the question in The Species Problem in Cannabis (1979), in two volumes, one on the science and one on the semantics.[30]

One species, two subspecies

Main article: Cannabis taxonomy

Small and Cronquist, of the New York Botanical Garden, published "A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis" in Taxon in August 1976.[31] They kept one species and ranked the taxa of Linnaeus and Lamarck as its subspecies: C. sativa subsp. sativa, with less than 0.3 per cent THC in the dried flowering tops of female plants and C. sativa subsp. indica, with 0.3 per cent or more.[6] Each subspecies holds a domesticated and a wild variety.[6] Antonino Pollio called the method biphasic, since it joins the THC content to the morphology of the fruit. He listed the four varieties: var. sativa and var. spontanea in subsp. sativa, var. indica and var. kafiristanica in subsp. indica.[32] Small and Cronquist chose a sheet grown from seed that Nikolai Vavilov collected at Chekhosarai in Afghanistan in 1924, Vavilov s.n., Chekhosarai (1924), as the lectotype of var. kafiristanica.[31]: 429 They wrote that Schultes's conception of C. indica was very narrow and heavily influenced by a large-leaved variant he had collected in Afghanistan.[31]: 410

Small annotated cannabis sheets in other herbaria while preparing the revision. At the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien he determined a sheet from Afghanistan as C. sativa in 1974 and as subsp. indica in 1975.[33] In August 1975 he determined sheets at the New York Botanical Garden[34] and in February and March 1976 those of the Harvard University Herbaria.[35][36]

Reception

In 2018 McPartland wrote that the formal nomenclature Small and Cronquist erected had not been replaced. Of the models he compared, he judged Small's the closest to the original descriptions of the names.[37] Rita Dal Martello and colleagues wrote in 2024 that many botanical sources follow the 1976 taxonomy.[38] Other botanists, among them Karl W. Hillig and Robert Clarke with Mark Merlin, rank C. sativa and C. indica as species.[6]

McPartland and Small wrote in 2020 that numerous countries had taken the 0.3 per cent line into their rules separating hemp from drug plants.[6] Anastasia Stats and colleagues, writing on hemp in Arizona in 2023, traced the limit to Small and Cronquist, wrote that the two authors had called it arbitrary and argued that it could be raised.[39]

Later work

With T. Pocock and P.B. Cavers, Small wrote the account of Cannabis sativa in the series on the biology of Canadian weeds (2003). Spontaneous populations had then been found in every province. Those that had regained wild adaptations were concentrated along the St. Lawrence and the lower Great Lakes. The authors judged the feral plants a minor problem for agriculture and a major one for law enforcement. In their account decades of eradication had wiped out many of the naturalised populations.[40]

His review of the evolution and classification of C. sativa in the Botanical Review (2015) again recognised one species, with a narcotic and a non-narcotic subspecies, each with domesticated and ruderal varieties. The review also proposed six cultivar Groups under the code for cultivated plants as an alternative.[41] Under the Group scheme the landraces of Central Asia form "Cannabis Group Narcotic, THC/CBD Balanced" and those of South Asia "Cannabis Group Narcotic, THC Predominant".[6] Pollio described him as careful in applying the code, a caution he attributed to doubt over treating Cannabis purely as a cultivated plant.[32] Clarke and Merlin answered the review in a letter to the journal.[42]

Cannabis: A Complete Guide appeared from CRC Press in 2017.[43] Mark Merlin, reviewing it in Economic Botany, called it Small's "latest and by far his most comprehensive Cannabis publication".[1] Writing in 2017 on dwarf germplasm, Small found no conventional public gene bank in North America that would supply cannabis for study or accept it for deposit.[44]

The high-THC varieties (2020)

Herbarium sheet with three dense, leafy cannabis branches bearing seed, strapped to the mount.
Schultes 26505, gathered near Kandahar in 1971, which McPartland and Small made the epitype of var. afghanica in 2020 (McPartland and Small 2020, fig. 5b, CC BY 4.0).

McPartland and Small examined about 1,100 herbarium specimens in 15 herbaria and drew chemical and genetic data from earlier studies. They gave formal names to the two kinds of drug plant known in lay terms since the 1980s as "Sativa" and "Indica": C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica (South Asian in origin) and var. afghanica (Central Asian). Their wild-growing relatives became var. himalayensis in South Asia and var. asperrima in Central Asia. The authors called the four critically endangered reservoirs of germplasm in urgent need of conservation. They followed the 1976 paper in separating domesticated from wild-type varieties.[6] They designated new types:[6]

Dal Martello and colleagues used the name var. asperrima for the narrow-leaflet drug plants of Central Asia in 2024.[38]

Specimens and seed lots

Accessions that Small determined, alone or with others:

 Determined byCountryCollectedRepository
Anon. s.n., Atyrau (1895)E. SmallKazakhstanMoscow University Herbarium
Armacost 66 (1930)E. SmallChinaNew York Botanical Garden
Chiao 3165 (1930)E. SmallChinaNew York Botanical Garden
ECON 00449607 (1973)E. SmallThailandHarvard University Herbaria
Gabriel 253 (s.d.)E. Small (1975)IranNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Henry 11209 (s.d.)E. SmallChinaNew York Botanical Garden
Hooker s.n., Marocco (1871)E. Small (1975)MoroccoRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew
King 460 (1936)E. SmallChinaNew York Botanical Garden
Koelz 1665 (1931)E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Koelz 1666 (1931)E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Koelz 4612 (1933)E. H. Walker; E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Koelz 692 (1930)E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Koelz 8456 (1936)RRS; E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Kulyasov 183 (1895)E. SmallKazakhstanMoscow University Herbarium
Larionov 65 (1876)E. SmallChinaMoscow University Herbarium
Liu L2441 (1929)E. SmallChinaNew York Botanical Garden
McClure 734 (1932)E. SmallVietnamNew York Botanical Garden
Neubauer 294 (1949)E. Small (1975)AfghanistanNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Plowman 3767 (1974)E. Small (1976)ColombiaHarvard University Herbaria
Plowman s.n., Easton (1974)E. Small (1976)United StatesHarvard University Herbaria
Plowman s.n., Roxbury (1973), ECON 00946341E. Small (1976)United StatesHarvard University Herbaria
Rechinger 32428 (1965)E. Small (1975)AfghanistanNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Rechinger 35587 (1967)E. Small (1975)AfghanistanNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Regel s.n., Karakol (1877)J.M. McPartland & E. Small (2020)KyrgyzstanKomarov Botanical Institute
Scheibe 82 (1935)E. Small (1975)AfghanistanNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Schultes 26503 (1971)E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
Schultes 26504 (1971)E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
Schultes 26505 (1971)J.M. McPartland & E. Small (2020)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
Schultes 26508 (1971)E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
Singh 48 (1928)E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Starmühlner 187 (1949)E. SmallIranNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Stewart s.n., Rawalpindi (1913)E. Small (1975)PakistanNew York Botanical Garden
Thomson s.n. (1847)J.M. McPartland & E. Small (2020)IndiaHarvard University Herbaria
Tsiang 7431 (1930)E. SmallChinaNew York Botanical Garden
UMS-AFG-UNK-0019710001E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-AFG-UNK-0019710002E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-AFG-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-AFG-UNK-0019720001-R1E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-AFG-UNK-0019720002E. Small (1976)AfghanistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)KoreaHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001-R1E. Small (1976)KoreaHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001-R2E. Small (1976)KoreaHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-NPL-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)NepalHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-NPL-UNK-0019720002E. Small (1976)NepalHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-PAK-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)PakistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-PAK-UNK-0019720001-R1E. Small (1976)PakistanHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-THA-UNK-0019690001E. Small (1976)ThailandHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-THA-UNK-0019700001E. Small (1976)ThailandHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-THA-UNK-0019710001E. Small (1976)ThailandHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-THA-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)ThailandHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-THA-UNK-0019720002E. Small (1976)ThailandHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-THA-UNK-0019720003E. Small (1976)ThailandHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700001E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700002E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700003E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700004E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019710001E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019710002E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019710003E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001-R1E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001-R2E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001-R3E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720002E. Small (1976)TurkeyHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-VNM-UNK-0019700001E. Small (1976)VietnamHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-VNM-UNK-0019720001E. Small (1976)VietnamHarvard University Herbaria
UMS-VNM-UNK-0019720002E. Small (1976)VietnamHarvard University Herbaria
Vavilov s.n., Chekhosarai (1924)J.M. McPartland & E. Small (2020)AfghanistanN.I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources
Vavilov s.n., Gui-Akhen (1924)J.M. McPartland & E. Small (2020)AfghanistanN.I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources
Volk 1068 (1950)E. Small (1975)AfghanistanNaturhistorisches Museum Wien
Yeshoda 490 (1932)E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Yeshoda 490 (1933)E. Small (1975)IndiaNew York Botanical Garden
Zamatkinov 103/11 (1927)E. SmallMongoliaNew York Botanical Garden

He supplied seed to Karl Hillig at Indiana University. A sheet that Hillig made in 1996 from a greenhouse plant, IUB-THA-UNK-0019960001, names "Dr. Ernest Small" as the seed source, under the source code No. 10, with Thailand as the country of origin.[45]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 "Cannabis: A Complete Guide, 1st Edition". Routledge. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Small, Ernest". Index of Botanists. Harvard University Herbaria. Botanist ID 74884. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs (1972). Cannabis: A Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs (PDF) (Report). Ottawa: Information Canada. Catalogue No. H21-5370/4. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Fischedick, J.T. (2017). "Identification of terpenoid chemotypes among high (−)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-producing Cannabis sativa L. cultivars". Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. 2 (1): 34–47. doi:10.1089/can.2016.0040.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Small, E. (1975). "American law and the species problem in Cannabis: science and semantics". Bulletin on Narcotics (3). United Nations: 1–20.
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144: 81–112. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
  7. ↑ "Small, Ernie". Index of Botanists. Harvard University Herbaria. Botanist ID 30259. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  8. ↑ "Cooley Award". American Society of Plant Taxonomists. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  9. ↑ "Past Recipients of the Lawson Medal". The Canadian Botanical Association. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  10. ↑ "Dr. Ernest Small". The Governor General of Canada. Archived from the original on 14 April 2026. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  11. ↑ "Past Winners and Finalists". Lane Anderson Award. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  12. ↑ Small, Ernest. "Cannabis". Flora of North America. eFloras. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 "Occurrence 1930264955: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Occurrence 1928115379: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  15. ↑ "Occurrence 1503177853: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  16. ↑ "Occurrence 1928339171: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  17. ↑ "Occurrence 1927769696: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  18. ↑ "Occurrence 1930343832: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  19. ↑ "Occurrence 1929909131: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  20. ↑ "Occurrence 1928802801: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  21. ↑ "Occurrence 1929394607: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  22. ↑ "Occurrence 1931285602: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  23. ↑ "Occurrence 1928031690: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  24. ↑ "Occurrence 1928469321: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  25. ↑ "Occurrence 1929197353: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  26. ↑ "Occurrence search: Cannabis, Canada, preserved specimens". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  27. ↑ Small, Ernest; Beckstead, H.D. (September 1973). "Cannabinoid phenotypes in Cannabis sativa". Nature. 245 (5421): 147–148. doi:10.1038/245147a0.
  28. ↑ Small, E.; Jui, P.Y.; Lefkovitch, L.P. (1976). "A numerical taxonomic analysis of Cannabis with special reference to species delimitation". Systematic Botany. 1 (1): 67–84. doi:10.2307/2418840.
  29. ↑ United States v. Rothberg 351 F. Supp. 1115. United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York (30 November 1972). No. 71-CR-164. Retrieved 11 October 2026.
  30. ↑ Small, Ernest (1979). The Species Problem in Cannabis: Science and Semantics. Toronto: Corpus. LCCN 79317188.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Small, Ernest; Cronquist, Arthur (August 1976). "A practical and natural taxonomy for Cannabis". Taxon. 25 (4): 405–435. doi:10.2307/1220524.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Pollio, Antonino (December 2016). "The name of Cannabis: a short guide for nonbotanists". Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. 1 (1): 234–238. doi:10.1089/can.2016.0027.
  33. ↑ "Specimen W 1970-0008005: Cannabis sativa subsp. indica (Lam.) E.Small & Cronquist". JACQ Virtual Herbaria. Naturhistorisches Museum Wien. Retrieved 6 October 2026.
  34. ↑ "Occurrence 1929949596: Cannabis sativa subsp. indica". GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 16 September 2026.
  35. ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica, barcode 01154364". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 15 October 2026.
  36. ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica, barcode 00429205". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 15 October 2026.
  37. ↑ McPartland, J.M. (2018). "Cannabis systematics at the levels of family, genus, and species". Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. 3 (1): 203–212. doi:10.1089/can.2018.0039.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Dal Martello, Rita; Min, Rui; Stevens, Chris J.; Qin, Ling; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2024). "Morphometric approaches to Cannabis evolution and differentiation from archaeological sites: interpreting the archaeobotanical evidence from bronze age Haimenkou, Yunnan". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 33 (4): 503–518. doi:10.1007/s00334-023-00966-6.
  39. ↑ Stats, Anastasia K.; Sweat, Ken G.; Masson, Robert N.; Conrow, Kendra D.; Frazier, Amy E.; Leung, Maxwell C. K. (9 June 2023). "The Desert Whale: the boom and bust of hemp in Arizona". Journal of Cannabis Research. 5 19. doi:10.1186/s42238-023-00187-8.
  40. ↑ Small, E.; Pocock, T.; Cavers, P. B. (2003). "The biology of Canadian weeds. 119. Cannabis sativa L.". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 83 (1): 217–237. doi:10.4141/P02-021.
  41. ↑ Small, E. (2015). "Evolution and classification of Cannabis sativa (marijuana, hemp) in relation to human utilization". The Botanical Review. 81 (3): 189–294. doi:10.1007/s12229-015-9157-3.
  42. ↑ Clarke, Robert C.; Merlin, Mark D. (2015). "Letter to the Editor: Small, Ernest. 2015. Evolution and Classification of Cannabis sativa (Marijuana, Hemp) in Relation to Human Utilization. Botanical Review 81(3): 189-294". The Botanical Review. 81 (4): 295–305. doi:10.1007/s12229-015-9158-2.
  43. ↑ Small, Ernest (2017). Cannabis: A Complete Guide. CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781315367583. ISBN 978-1-4987-6164-2.
  44. ↑ Small, E. (2018). "Dwarf germplasm: the key to giant Cannabis hempseed and cannabinoid crops". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 65 (4): 1071–1107. doi:10.1007/s10722-017-0597-y.
  45. ↑ "IND-0149679: Cannabis indica Lam". Consortium of Midwest Herbaria. Indiana University Herbarium. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
Retrieved from "https://landrace.wiki/index.php?title=Ernest_Small&oldid=47069"