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Korea

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Pale rounded rock pinnacles dotted with pine trees under a cloudy sky, with a pine growing from a ledge in the foreground
Ulsanbawi in Seoraksan National Park, South Korea.

Korea is the peninsula in East Asia between the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan, divided between two states: South Korea (the Republic of Korea) and North Korea (the Democratic People's Republic of Korea). Cannabis has long been grown there for its fibre and seed. The Korean names for the plant are 삼 (sam) and 대마 (daema, 大麻); the cloth woven from it is 삼베 (sambe).[1] Before cotton spread, hemp cloth was a basic clothing material and a form of tax.[2] It is the traditional cloth of mourning.[3]

Both states control the drug. South Korea has listed cannabis as a narcotic since 1957 and has licensed hemp growers since its Cannabis Control Act of 1976; since 2019 cannabis medicines may be imported for patients. North Korea joined the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 2007 and passed a law against drug crime in 2021, while hemp is grown there as a fibre and oil crop. Three accessions grown out at the University of Mississippi in 1972 came from seed labelled Korean, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew holds hemp fibre and cloth from Korea given in 1885 and 1910.

Geography

Records of the early Joseon period show hemp grown throughout the country. In the later Joseon gazetteer Yeoji doseo, 79 of 334 districts produced hemp or hemp thread. About 84 per cent of those districts lay in the northern provinces of Hamgyong, Hwanghae and Pyongan; the six garrison towns of Hamgyong were known for their hemp cloth.[1] In the later Joseon period production held in the north while the producing districts south of Hwanghae shrank as cotton spread.[2]

In South Korea hemp cloth is still made around Andong and at Dangjin, Jeongseon, Samcheok, Gangneung, Muju, Gokseong, Boseong, Sunchang, Bonghwa, Cheongdo, Geochang and Namhae.[1] In 2006 hemp was grown for bast fibre and seed in several of the country's fertile inland valleys.[4] The Ministry of SMEs and Startups called North Gyeongsang, the province around Andong, the country's largest producer of industrial hemp.[5]

Cannabis in Korea

History

The waterlogged settlement of Sinchang-dong in Gwangju has yielded hemp among its cultivated plant remains[6] and fragments of bast cloth dated to between 100 BC and AD 100.[1] Hemp seeds preserved by waterlogging at the site have been dated to 200–100 BC.[7] Thread wound on a bone needle from the Neolithic shell mound of Gungsan, in Onchon County in the north, has been described as hemp and dated to about 4500 BC[1] or to 4000–3000 BC.[8] Nelson and colleagues wrote in 2020 that no hemp remains in Korea predate the Early Iron Age, after an earlier hemp find at the Neolithic site of Taych'on-li was reidentified as a clump of soil.[9]

Hemp fabrics, told apart from ramie, come from tombs of the Gaya, Silla and Baekje kingdoms from the late 2nd century onwards, among them the tomb of King Muryeong.[10] In 1123 the Song envoy Xu Jing wrote that the people of Goryeo grew their own ramie and hemp and that many people wore bast cloth.[11] Buddhist statues of the Goryeo period have yielded hemp seeds in quantity from the objects sealed inside them.[1] Cotton reached the peninsula at the end of Goryeo.[8] Hemp cloth still served for clothing and also as tax, trade good and local speciality.[2]

Under Japanese rule, a survey of North Gyeongsang in the Korean journal Gaebyeok in 1923 put the hemp fields of Andong county at about 195 jeongbo (roughly 190 hectares), with more than 23,000 bolts of cloth a year, all of it women's side work. The county office had founded a Hemp Cloth Association in July 1913 that charged producers 20 sen a bolt as an inspection fee; the journal called it pointless.[12] The Japanese variety Yashū hemp (野州麻) was brought in, but in Gurye county, in the south-west, the native hemp stayed in use and growing methods did not change under colonial rule.[13] Korean hemp seed also went abroad: the United States Department of Agriculture received in 1916 a lot collected at Seoul[14] and another, named Ouami, collected in Keiki-dō (Gyeonggi) in March 1930 by the Government-General's Bureau of Industry with P. H. Dorsett and W. J. Morse.[15]

In South Korea hemp remained a major fibre crop into the 1960s, grown on upland fields and paddies. In 1958 it covered 9,475 hectares and gave 6,735 tonnes of raw fibre, stripped by hand and made into work clothes; Ree estimated that a third of the population wore hemp in summer.[16] The area fell from 7,126 hectares in 1961 to 2,062 in 1975 and 458 in 1976; the Food and Agriculture Organization estimated 11 hectares in 2024.[17] Choi traced the fall of Gurye's hemp cloth since the 1970s to western dress, cheap Chinese cloth and the cultivation permits tied to the ban on marijuana. Cremation and simpler funerals also cut the demand for hemp shrouds.[13]

In North Korea hemp is grown with official sanction. It is made into towels, cooking oil, noodles, military uniforms and belts, and it serves as rabbit fodder. An official of the Pyongyang Hemp Processing Factory told the Associated Press in 2017 that the country's several hemp varieties are all very low in THC.[18] Radio Free Asia reported in 2016, from an anonymous source, that the plant is called 역삼 (yeoksam) there and is classed as an oil crop that may be grown legally. The same source said that Kim Il Sung had promoted it in the early 1980s to ease a shortage of cooking oil.[19] FAO estimates of the North's hemp area rose from 7,000 hectares in the 1960s to 22,080 hectares in 2024.[17]

Cultivation

The low-THC South Korean cultivar Cheongsam (청삼, also written Cheungsam) was selected from crosses between Korean local cultivars (about 1.7 per cent THC) and low-THC accessions from the Netherlands. Its own THC content is 0.34 per cent.[20] The Dutch parent was the accession IH3.[21] Doh and colleagues compared it with local cultivars gathered at Dangjin, Boseong, Jecheon, Jeongseon and Andong.[20]

Two North Korean landraces in the genebank at Gatersleben have been used in genetic studies. Woods and colleagues grouped accessions from China and North Korea as their "Asian" population.[22] Trubanová and colleagues grew one of them, the dioecious landrace 'Korea' (CAN 23), which was among the latest of their lines to flower.[23]

A checklist of alien plants in South Korea published in 2025 lists Cannabis sativa as an archaeophyte (introduced before 1876), a naturalised plant that is also cultivated.[24] Herbarium sheets from the peninsula include one gathered at Seoul in September 1891 by J. Beauvais, in the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris;[25] one collected by E. J. Taquet on Jeju (Quelpaert) in September 1908, in the herbarium of the Komarov Botanical Institute in St Petersburg;[26] and one collected at Pyongyang on 1 October 1937, in the Harvard University Herbaria, which Ernest Small determined in 1975 as C. sativa subsp. indica.[27]

Preparations and consumption

Sambe is woven from the bast fibre of the hemp stem.[1] The harvested stalks, stripped of their leaves, are steamed in a pit (삼굿, samgut), peeled and dried in the sun.[28] Cloth is graded by thread count (seung), the higher number being finer: Gokseong's Dolsil-nai is woven at 9 seung and Andong-po at 12.[28] Andong's process runs to eight stages from cultivation to weaving.[29] Andong-po is woven from saengnaengi, hemp with the outer bark removed. It is compared in fineness with ramie.[1]

The seed is pressed for cooking and lamp oil; the press-cake is fed to livestock or used as fertiliser.[30] In Korean medicine the seed (麻仁, ma-in) is used for constipation from dryness of the intestines; the Korean Traditional Knowledge Portal lists 52 prescriptions containing it, several of them from the Donguibogam of 1613.[31] Clarke wrote in 2006 that South Korea had no local tradition of using hemp as medicine or inebriant.[4]

Smoking cannabis began among United States troops in the late 1960s and spread to young Koreans in the base towns; by about 1975 it had reached universities and the entertainment world.[32]

Cultural use

For the heaviest of the five grades of mourning, garments are made of raw, coarse hemp cloth; the lightest grade takes very fine hemp of 15 seung.[3] Shrouds are often made of ramie or hemp, because a cloth that decays quickly is preferred.[33]

The Samguk sagi tells that in the ninth year of King Yuri of Silla (AD 32 by the annals' reckoning) the women of the six districts, in two teams led by princesses, spun ma (麻) every day from the sixteenth day of the seventh month until late at night; on the fifteenth day of the eighth month the losing team gave food and wine to the winners.[34] The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture reads the contest as a Chuseok custom of gilssam, a word that first meant the communal spinning of hemp thread.[8] The 1923 Gaebyeok survey found the custom still alive, strongest in Andong because of its hemp cloth.[12]

Gokseong's Dolsil-nai was designated National Intangible Cultural Property No. 32 on 22 July 1970.[28] Andong-po weaving (안동포짜기) became an intangible heritage of North Gyeongsang Province on 30 December 1975.[29] On 31 December 2019 Dolsil-nai was merged into a new national designation, No. 140, Sambe weaving (삼베짜기),[28] whose holder is the Andong-po Village Preservation Society, with no individual holder named.[35][1]

South Korea

The Narcotics Act of 1957 listed Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), its seed, resin and products as a narcotic but left out the stalk of the mature plant and seed that cannot germinate.[36] In 1973 an amendment to the Habit-Forming Drugs Control Act banned smoking, eating, trading and possessing cannabis while exempting its growing for fibre and seed.[37] The Cannabis Control Act of 1976, in force from 1 January 1977, made the hemp grower (대마재배자), one who grows the plant for fibre or seed, a licensed category bound to report the area sown and the crop. It punished import or export with life imprisonment or at least seven years; done for profit or by habit, the penalty rose to death, life or at least ten years.[38] The Act on the Control of Narcotics of 2000 absorbed it, keeping the licence and leaving the seed, root and mature stalk out of its definition of cannabis.[39] The text in force today grants the licence only to farmers and punishes smoking cannabis with up to five years' imprisonment or a fine of up to 50 million won.[40]

The 1976 Act followed a campaign against cannabis that began in December 1975 with the arrest of folk singers and other entertainers. Rhee counts about 1,700 people caught up in it during 1976 and found no case of anyone receiving the Act's heaviest penalties;[41] the Supreme Prosecutors' Office gives 1,460 cannabis smokers arrested in its 1976 crackdown.[32] In 2025 prosecutors recorded 2,459 cannabis offenders among 23,403 drug offenders, against 3,317 in 2024.[42]

An amendment promulgated on 11 December 2018 allowed cannabis to be used for medical purposes with the approval of the Minister of Food and Drug Safety.[43] From 12 March 2019 the Korea Orphan and Essential Drug Center may import and sell cannabis medicines for diseases that the medicines permitted in Korea cannot treat; patients buy them through the centre.[44] In July 2020 the government made North Gyeongsang a regulation-free special zone for industrial hemp, where hemp could be grown and extracted for export.[45] Its exemptions allowed hemp to be grown for CBD and CBD drug substances to be made and exported; the leaves and unfertilised female flowers no longer had to be destroyed.[5] South Korea ratified the Single Convention on 13 February 1962.[46]

North Korea

North Korea acceded to the Single Convention on 19 March 2007.[46] It enacted a Law on Prevention of Drug Crimes in July 2021 and strengthened the drug provisions of its Criminal Code in May 2022.[47] The Associated Press reported in 2017 that the penal code lists marijuana as a controlled substance in the same category as cocaine and heroin, against claims in foreign media that it is legal there.[18]

Accessions

The University of Mississippi's first experimental plot, sown in 1968, included seed from Korea.[48] In 1972 the university's garden grew three lots coded K A, K A1 and K A2, whose herbarium labels call the seed Korean: UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001,[49] UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001-R1[50] and UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001-R2.[51]

Kew holds a sample of hemp fibre from Korea, EBC 43439 (by 1910), given by the Japan-British Exhibition of 1910.[52] It also holds hemp fibre and cloth given by W. R. Carles in 1885, Textile (Kew EBC 43417), which its catalogue places in North Korea.[53]

Accession IDNameTypeCollected
EBC 43439 (by 1910)Kew Economic Botany object 43439, hemp fibre from Korea, given by the Japan-British Exhibition of 1910
UMS-KOR-UNK-00197200011972 UMS Korea K A ReproductionReproduction
UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001-R11972 UMS Korea K A1 ReproductionReproduction
UMS-KOR-UNK-0019720001-R21972 UMS Korea K A2 ReproductionReproduction

Conservation status

Two North Korean landraces are kept at the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research in Gatersleben. CAN 20 was collected on 12 November 1985 a few kilometres beyond Kosong on the road to Mount Kumgang;[54] CAN 23 was collected on 30 October 1987 at Rinsan in North Hwanghae, at a cooperative farm for medicinal plants.[55] In 2023 Gatersleben gave both to the National Plant Germplasm System of the United States, as G 33596 and G 33599,[56][57] which also holds a North Korean landrace obtained at a market or shop in 1986 (G 33860).[58] The Korean lots received by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1916 and 1930 no longer exist.[14][15]

In Andong, where hemp growing has needed a permit since the 1970s, only the villages of Geumso-ri and Gogok-ri still carry out the whole process from growing hemp to weaving; the others buy hemp and only weave.[59]

Recent news

ArticleDateCountryCategory
News:2026-10-08/Policy/suwon-district-court-sentences-a-kudokai-member-to-ten-years-over-636-kg-of-cannabis-shipped-from-thailand-inSouth KoreaPolicy

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Sim, Y. (2022). "삼베" [Sambe]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Jo, S. (2020). "A study on the production site of sambe in the Joseon dynasty". Studies in Humanities (in 한국어). 66: 283–312. doi:10.33252/sih.2020.9.66.283.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Yu, S. (1995). "상복" [Mourning dress]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Clarke, R.C. (2006). "Hemp (Cannabis) cultivation and use in the Republic of Korea". Journal of Industrial Hemp. 11 (1): 51–86. doi:10.1300/J237v11n01_07.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "중기부-경북, 국내 최초 '산업용 헴프(대마)' 실증 착수" [Ministry and North Gyeongsang begin the first industrial hemp demonstration in Korea] (Press release) (in 한국어). Ministry of SMEs and Startups. 30 April 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  6. ↑ Jo, H. (2021). "광주 신창동 유적" [Gwangju Sinchang-dong site]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  7. ↑ Dal Martello, Rita; Min, Rui; Stevens, Chris J.; Qin, Ling; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2024). "Morphometric approaches to Cannabis evolution and differentiation from archaeological sites: interpreting the archaeobotanical evidence from bronze age Haimenkou, Yunnan". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 33 (4): 503–518. doi:10.1007/s00334-023-00966-6.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Jang, G. (2022). "길쌈" [Gilssam]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  9. ↑ Nelson, S.; Zhushchikhovskaya, I.; Li, T.; Hudson, M.; Robbeets, M. (2020). "Tracing population movements in ancient East Asia through the linguistics and archaeology of textile production". Evolutionary Human Sciences. 2 e5. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.4.
  10. ↑ Lee, E. (2022). "마직" [Bast-fibre weaving]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  11. ↑ "宣和奉使高麗圖經 卷23 雜俗二 土産" [Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing, vol. 23]. Korean History Database (in 한국어). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "朝鮮文化의 基本調査(其二): 慶北道號 上" [Basic survey of Korean culture, no. 2: North Gyeongsang, part 1]. Gaebyeok (in 한국어) (36). 1 June 1923. Retrieved 12 October 2026 – via Korean History Database.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Choi, S.Y. (2014). "The characteristics and changes of traditional hemp textile production of Gurye at Jeollanam-do in modern times (1920s~1980s)". The Research Journal of the Costume Culture (in 한국어). 22 (1): 16–27. doi:10.7741/rjcc.2014.22.1.016.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "PI 41728, Cannabis sativa L." GRIN-Global. USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "PI 87141, Cannabis sativa L., Ouami". GRIN-Global. USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  16. ↑ Ree, J.H. (1966). "Hemp growing in the Republic of Korea". Economic Botany. 20 (2): 176–186. doi:10.1007/BF02904013.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "FAOSTAT: Crops and livestock products". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Talmadge, E. (12 January 2017). "North Korea is a bad trip if you're looking to get high". The Jakarta Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  19. ↑ Moon, S. (6 December 2016). "북 대마초 중국으로 대량 반출" [North Korean cannabis carried out to China in bulk]. Radio Free Asia (in 한국어). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Doh, E.J.; Lee, G.; Yun, Y.-J.; Kang, L.-W.; Kim, E.S.; Lee, M.Y.; Oh, S.-E. (2019). "DNA markers to discriminate Cannabis sativa L. 'Cheungsam' with low tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content from other South Korea cultivars based on the nucleotide sequences of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase and putative 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase genes". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2019 8121796. doi:10.1155/2019/8121796.
  21. ↑ Sng, B.J.R.; Jeong, Y.J.; Leong, S.H.; Jeong, J.C.; Lee, J.; Rajani, S.; Kim, C.Y.; Jang, I.-C. (2024). "Genome-wide identification of cannabinoid biosynthesis genes in non-drug type Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivar". Journal of Cannabis Research. 6 35. doi:10.1186/s42238-024-00246-8.
  22. ↑ Woods, P.; Price, N.; Matthews, P.; McKay, J.K. (2023). "Genome-wide polymorphism and genic selection in feral and domesticated lineages of Cannabis sativa". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 13 (2) jkac209. doi:10.1093/g3journal/jkac209.
  23. ↑ Trubanová, N.; Pender, G.; McCabe, P.F.; Melzer, R.; Schilling, S. (2026). "Exploring phenotypic and genetic variability in hemp (Cannabis sativa)". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 73 (2) 77. doi:10.1007/s10722-025-02700-9.
  24. ↑ Kang, E.S.; Seol, J.; Jang, J.E.; Jung, S.-Y.; Kim, H.B.; Son, D.C. (2025). "An updated checklist of alien plants in the Republic of Korea". Biological Invasions. 27 (11) 231. doi:10.1007/s10530-025-03688-0.
  25. ↑ "Occurrence 731417280: Cannabis L., P06781054". GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  26. ↑ "Occurrence 2005775640: Cannabis sativa L., Taquet 1391". GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  27. ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica, barcode 00449591". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 "곡성의 돌실나이 (谷城의 돌실나이)" [Gokseong Dolsil-nai]. National Heritage Portal (in 한국어). Korea Heritage Service. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "안동포짜기 (安東布짜기)" [Andong-po weaving]. National Heritage Portal (in 한국어). Korea Heritage Service. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  30. ↑ Kang, B. (1995). "삼" [Sam (hemp)]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  31. ↑ "마인(麻仁)" [Ma-in (hemp seed)]. Korean Traditional Knowledge Portal (in 한국어). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Supreme Prosecutors' Office (2026). "마약류 범죄 단속 규정". 2025 마약류 범죄백서 [2025 white paper on drug crime] (Report) (in 한국어). p. 42. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  33. ↑ Yu, S. (1995). "수의" [Shroud]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  34. ↑ "三國史記 卷第一 新羅本紀 第一 儒理尼師今 九年" [Samguk sagi, vol. 1, Silla annals 1, King Yuri, year 9]. Korean History Database (in 文言). National Institute of Korean History. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  35. ↑ "삼베짜기" [Sambe weaving]. National Heritage Portal (in 한국어). Korea Heritage Service. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  36. ↑ 마약법(법률 No. 440), 23 April 1957, art. 2.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  37. ↑ 습관성의약품관리법(법률 No. 2613), 13 March 1973, arts. 2 and 5.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  38. ↑ 대마관리법(법률 No. 2895), 7 April 1976, arts. 2, 5, 7 and 18.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  39. ↑ 마약류관리에관한법률(법률 No. 6146), 12 January 2000, arts. 2 and 36.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  40. ↑ 마약류 관리에 관한 법률(법률 No. 21857), 4 August 2026, arts. 2, 6 and 61.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  41. ↑ Rhee, R. (2020). South Korean popular folk music: the genre that defined 1970s youth culture (PhD thesis). University of California, Los Angeles. pp. 141–162.
  42. ↑ Supreme Prosecutors' Office (2026). "국내 동향". 2025 마약류 범죄백서 [2025 white paper on drug crime] (Report) (in 한국어). p. 53. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  43. ↑ 마약류 관리에 관한 법률(법률 No. 15939), 11 December 2018.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  44. ↑ 마약류 관리에 관한 법률 시행령(대통령령 No. 29620), 12 March 2019.Republic of Korea.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  45. ↑ "7개 시·도에 3차 규제자유특구 신규 지정" [Third round of regulation-free special zones designated in seven provinces and cities] (Press release) (in 한국어). Ministry of SMEs and Startups. 6 July 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  47. ↑ Kim, J.H. (2024). "Expanding punishment for drug crimes through the Prevention of Drug Crimes Act in North Korea". Yonsei Law Review (in 한국어). 34 (3): 31–55. doi:10.21717/ylr.34.3.2.
  48. ↑ "History". Marijuana Research. School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi. Archived from the original on 24 January 2026. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
  49. ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica, barcode 00449601". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 9 October 2026.
  50. ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica, barcode 00449598". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 9 October 2026.
  51. ↑ "Cannabis sativa var. kafiristanica, barcode 00449604". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 9 October 2026.
  52. ↑ "Hemp Fibre, catalogue number 43439". Economic Botany Collection. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  53. ↑ "Fibre (& cloth) of hemp, catalogue number 43417". Economic Botany Collection. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  54. ↑ "CAN 20, Cannabis sativa L." Genesys. Global Crop Diversity Trust. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  55. ↑ "CAN 23, Cannabis sativa L." Genesys. Global Crop Diversity Trust. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  56. ↑ "G 33596, Cannabis sativa L." GRIN-Global. USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  57. ↑ "G 33599, Cannabis sativa L." GRIN-Global. USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  58. ↑ "G 33860, Cannabis sativa L." GRIN-Global. USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  59. ↑ Jo, H. "안동포" [Andong-po]. Encyclopedia of Andong Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
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