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Kyrgyzstan

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Kyrgyzstan
Кыргызстан (Kyrgyzstan)
The Tian Shan near Karakol, Issyk-Kul Region
The Tian Shan near Karakol, Issyk-Kul Region
Capital Bishkek
Continent Asia
Subregion Central Asia
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal
Status Since 2024
Enforcement Wild stands mown and burned each summer; penalties graded by weight
Documentation
Growing Regions 0
Growing Areas 0
Accessions 6


Kyrgyzstan is a country in Central Asia where cannabis grows wild in the valleys and foothills of the Tian Shan. Surveys by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in 1998 and 1999 found it growing wild and in cultivation in five provinces, most of all in Issyk-Kul and Jalal-Abad, whose cannabis had a higher THC content that traffickers preferred.[1] In 2020 the interior ministry said that more than ten thousand hectares of cannabis grew in the country.[2]

In a village of Tyup district, on the north-eastern side of Lake Issyk-Kul, young men and women made hashish in summer by rubbing the upper leaves and seeds of wild plants between their palms. Hashish had become a source of cash in a village economy of semi-subsistence farming.[3][4]: 132–134 The police and local authorities mow and burn the wild stands each summer, in raids reported under the names Mak (Poppy) and Kara-Kuurai.[5][6]

Cannabis is controlled under Law No. 69 of 2024 on narcotic drugs, which treats plants containing narcotics as "living organisms" and forbids their medical use.[7] The Criminal Code of 2021 grades the penalties for growing them by weight.[8]

Geography

A herbarium sheet with one long, branched cannabis stem laid on the diagonal with many small leaves, an empty envelope at the top left and typed slips over a printed label at the lower right.
Il'in 288, gathered on 25 July 1930 in a floodplain forest of the Talas Alatau and identified by Ernest Small in 1975 as Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa.

The UNODC surveys of 1998 and 1999 found cannabis growing wild and in cultivation in Issyk-Kul (2,444.2 hectares), Jalal-Abad (333.5), Talas (93.9), Chüy (87.4) and Osh (15.8). The OSCE estimated in 2004 that cannabis grew on 6,000 hectares. For 2006 Kyrgyzstan reported 537.5 hectares of wild growth and no illicit cultivation.[1] A UNODC review of the world cannabis markets put the cannabis in the Kyrgyz districts it had surveyed at about 3,005 hectares, mostly in Jalal-Abad and in four districts of Issyk-Kul. More than 70 per cent of it stood on abandoned farmland or on land in agricultural use.[9]: 83 Gulzat Botoeva, citing a Kyrgyz account, writes that a UNODC-funded mapping of the late 1990s found 8,322 hectares of wild cannabis in the whole country, 1,931.6 of them in the three Issyk-Kul districts of Jeti-Oguz, Tyup and Issyk-Kul.[4]: 70

A young man of Tyup district told Botoeva that the plant, kendir, grows on land that had been sown with wheat and then left uncultivated.[4]: 189 In the north, the Chüy Region shares its valley with the Shu Valley of Kazakhstan.[10] In the south, police analysis of the 1980s placed the gathering of wild hemp for drugs mainly in the Toktogul, Uzgen, Suzak and Kara-Suu districts.[11]: 28

The Flora of the USSR (1936) recorded Cannabis ruderalis in the Tian Shan floristic district, "very often as a field weed".[12] The Moscow University Herbarium holds Kyrgyz sheets gathered between 1930 and 1969.[13] M. M. Il'in gathered one in 1930 in a floodplain forest in the valley of the Bish-Tash, near the village of Dimitrievka in the Talas Alatau.[14] Yu. Popova's sheet of August 1950, labelled Cannabis ruderalis, comes from a street in Pokrovka in Issyk-Kul.[15] M. Botbaeva collected in 1960 in the foothills of the Ketmen-Tyube basin.[16] A sheet gathered in 2018 by M. Keskin and İ. İ. Özyiğit comes from the campus of Manas University in Bishkek.[17]

Demographics

Communities with cannabis relationships

Botoeva did her fieldwork in 2009 and 2010 in a village of Tyup district in the Karkyra valley, which she calls Toolu; the names of the village and of the people in her account are changed.[3][4]: 3 The valley is known across Kyrgyzstan for its wild cannabis and was officially listed in 1999 as a place with large fields of it. Local people there took up hashish making at the beginning of the 1990s.[4]: 5–6 In the late Soviet period they had not made it. A nashakur, a hashish user, was stigmatised.[4]: 6

The most visible makers in the village were young adults in their twenties and thirties. Men made hashish in the mountain fields and rode there on horseback. Women made it within the village or in nearby fields, on plots left uncultivated that year.[4]: 132–133 Hashish, counted in matchboxes, served the villagers as money.[4]: 158 In 2005 Botoeva heard hashish called kara-koi, "black sheep", when it was brought as a gift; by 2009 the name had gone out of use.[4]: 198–199 Younger makers called the fields where they worked Kumtor, after the gold mine.[4]: 201 In her later work, Botoeva ties the local acceptance of hashish harvesting to a customary understanding of the spiritual power of cannabis plants, which calls for caution when making hashish.[18]

Agriculture

Hemp was a Soviet fibre crop in the republic. Botoeva relays the argument of Askar Djakishev that the Soviet state introduced the crop in 1933 for ropes and bags and ended it in 1965 because of drug abuse among the young.[4]: 62 Amanai Akmatova quotes Djakishev on the decision: on 9 July 1964 the Council of Ministers of the Kirghiz SSR resolved to end the growing of South Chuy hemp in the republic from 1965 and to convert its bast-fibre plants. The Soviet government banned the sowing of hemp on household plots.[11]: 25

Landowners and land users must destroy wild plants containing narcotics on their plots.[7] No licence for low-THC hemp exists. Members of parliament have raised the question: in 2023 Dinara Ashimova proposed using the hemp for medicines instead of burning it.[19] In February 2026 Dastan Bekeshev proposed growing technical cannabis. The deputy agriculture minister replied that separate laws would have to be changed and that the ministry had not yet come to the question.[20]

Cannabis in Kyrgyzstan

In Botoeva's glossary of the village's words, kara-kuurai means cannabis plants, kendir marijuana and/or hashish, nasha hashish, nashakur a hashish user and korobochka a matchbox.[4]: x–xi In her text a villager's kendir is "the local name for cannabis plant". Elsewhere women "made kara-kuurai [hashish]".[4]: 136, 177 Villagers avoid nasha, the word the police use.[4]: 197 In Soviet times hashish was also called ruchnik ("made by hand").[4]: 63 Soviet police documents of Osh Region write анаша (anasha) for the drug made from wild hemp and гашиш (gashish) for hashish.[11]: 28

History

Main article: History of cannabis in Kyrgyzstan

Under the Russian Empire

On 1 October 1877 A. Regel gathered a sheet of cannabis near Karakol, now held in St Petersburg, which John McPartland and Ernest Small chose in 2020 as the lectotype of the wild-type variety asperrima, first published by Regel in 1879.[21] Brockhaus and Efron's Encyclopaedic Dictionary wrote in 1901 that in Russian Turkestan, whose Fergana and Semirechye oblasts took in today's Kyrgyzstan, hemp counted among the oil plants and its fibre had little use beyond rope. Its flowering parts were made into гашиш (hashish), which was smoked with tobacco or taken as sweets.[22] Botoeva, citing I. Amanaliev, writes that the imperial authorities banned hashish in the second half of the 19th century.[4]: 62

Soviet Kirghizia (1924–1991)

A herbarium sheet with a bare cannabis stem with its roots on the left, a leafy flowering branch on the right, a clear packet clipped at the top, a typed slip and a printed label at the lower right.
Gubanov s.n., a weed of the forestry plantings and nursery at Przhevalsk, today's Karakol, in 1956. The label is that of the Przhevalsk experimental station of the All-Union Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.

The criminal code of the Kirghiz SSR of 1960, in its wording of the early 1990s, punished the sowing or growing of opium poppy and of "Indian, southern, Manchurian, southern Chuy, southern Arkhon and southern Krasnodar" hemp with up to five years' imprisonment. A second article punished the illegal sowing of oil poppy and of other hemp.[23] Akmatova quotes Djakishev that the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the republic also made the sowing of South Chuy hemp a crime.[11]: 25

A decree of the Presidium of 10 May 1982 called the destruction of wild hemp, the raw material of illicit drugs, "the most important state measure". It set fines of 50 to 100 roubles for the heads of state and collective farms and forestries that failed to act; citizens could be fined 20 to 50 roubles.[11]: 22–23 In 1984 the police of Osh Region surveyed more than 213,681 hectares and destroyed wild hemp on 66.53 hectares by mechanical or chemical means. Of the drugs in the region's drug crimes, 94 per cent was anasha made from wild hemp. In 1985, 38 people who had been gathering it in the Toktogul district were detained at Tash-Kumyr with 3.8 kilograms of anasha and 65 kilograms of raw plant.[11]: 22–23, 28 Botoeva, citing Amanaliev, writes that 2,500 hectares of wild hemp were detected in the republic in 1974 and 4,000 hectares in 1984.[4]: 63

Gilmonoi Yuldasheva relays a Kyrgyz account that couriers came every year from about 26 Soviet cities to gather hemp in Kirghizia and make anasha from it or to buy it from local people.[24]: 23 Botoeva, citing Djakishev, writes that in Soviet times marijuana and hashish were made at Tyup mostly by outsiders, among them organised groups of Roma from Volgograd who came for the summer. The Kyrgyz writer Chinghiz Aitmatov described hashish made in the fields by small groups from the cities, living in tents in the mountains, in his novel Plakha (1986).[4]: 63 Hashish from the region was consumed mostly within the republic; some went to Russia, where hashish from Issyk-Kul was known by the name Tyupskiy ruchnik.[4]: 72

Independent Kyrgyzstan (since 1991)

Kyrgyzstan acceded on 7 October 1994 to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances and the 1988 convention against illicit traffic.[25][26][27] Law No. 66 on narcotic drugs was adopted on 22 May 1998.[7] The criminal code of 1997 punished the sowing of narcotic crops in large amounts with three to eight years' imprisonment.[28] Botoeva saw the presence of the militia in the village increase from the middle of the 2000s.[4]: 135

In December 2020 Kyrgyzstan voted at the Commission on Narcotic Drugs against removing cannabis from Schedule IV of the Single Convention. The interior ministry's counter-narcotics service said that any weakening of the control of cannabis could harm the drug situation in a country where more than ten thousand hectares of it grow.[2] Law No. 69 replaced the law of 1998 in 2024.[7]

Cultivation

A herbarium sheet with two leafy cannabis stems bearing dense clusters of flowers and a handwritten label at the lower right.
Popova s.n., gathered along a street in Pokrovka, Issyk-Kul Region, in August 1950 and labelled Cannabis ruderalis.

In Botoeva's village no one cultivated cannabis; hashish was made from wild plants.[4]: 154 The Issyk-Kul Region was officially the leading region of cannabis production in the 1990s and 2000s. In 2012 the State Service on Drug Control reported that people in the Issyk-Kul, Jalal-Abad, Talas, Chüy and Naryn regions produced marijuana and hashish.[4]: 70 The International Narcotics Control Board reported increases in cannabis cultivation in Kyrgyzstan in 2022.[29]: 115

Wild-type plants

McPartland and Small place Kyrgyzstan within the range of herbarium specimens of a wild-type phenotype, which they assign to Cannabis sativa subsp. indica var. asperrima. The range follows an arc of mountains through the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan. They write that Central Asians produced sieved hashish, whose bulk processing likely limited the selection of single high-THC plants, so that the plants' THC and CBD ratios stayed close to those of the wild type.[21] Karl Hillig's allozyme survey of 157 accessions found a third putative gene pool in the ruderal populations of Central Asia.[30] In a phylogeographic study of herbarium and fresh material, the samples from Kyrgyzstan showed a genetic structure not seen in the other samples. Those from north-western China, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan blended an Iranian Plateau subgroup with one of Eurosiberia and western Mongolia.[31]

Preparations and consumption

Hashish is made by rubbing the upper leaves and seeds of the plant between the palms until a sticky substance gathers on them.[4]: 133–134 It is sold by the matchbox, korobochka, which holds about 20 grams.[4]: 158 In the summer of 2010 a matchbox sold in the village for 350 to 450 som; the price rose to 800 som in winter and 1,500 in the spring of 2011, while in Bishkek it sold for 2,000 to 2,500 som.[4]: 146, 158 The State Service on Drug Control put the price of a cup of marijuana, 200 grams, at 6.4 to 8.5 US dollars in 2012. A matchbox of hashish cost 42.5 to 53.2 dollars.[4]: 72

The control list sets the sizes that grade drug offences. For dried hashish, up to 3 grams is a small amount and more than 90 grams an especially large one; for dried marijuana the limits are 20 and 600 grams; for the cannabis plant and dried cannabis straw they are 80 and 2,400 grams.[32] The UNODC estimated in 2001 that 6.2 per cent of adults used cannabis in a year, the highest rate in Central Asia.[33]: 28 Botoeva writes that after independence, when Kyrgyzstan became part of the "Northern route" for drugs from Afghanistan, users of local drugs such as marijuana, hashish and ephedra began to switch to heroin.[4]: 68

Trade and commerce

Cannabis in Central Asia is grown mainly for local consumption, with a small part trafficked to Europe and Russia.[33]: 24 Sergei Golunov counted parts of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, above all the Chu (Shu) valley, among the large suppliers of cannabis to Russia.[34] In its World Drug Report 2009 the UNODC wrote that Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan appear only as sources in the annual seizure reports. It placed the main production area of Central Asia in the Chu Valley in Kazakhstan.[35]

Kyrgyz law enforcement seized 2,399.8 kilograms of cannabis in 2006, 21 per cent more than in 2005. Seizures had peaked at 3,748.2 kilograms in 2000, three years after a low of 110.2 kilograms in 1997. Chüy (1,160.4 kilograms) and Issyk-Kul (620.1) together made up 74 per cent of the seizures of 2006.[33]: 26 Of the drugs seized in 2013, cannabis plants made up 61 per cent, marijuana 14 per cent and hashish 2.5 per cent.[4]: 71 Seizures of cannabis rose by 14.1 per cent in 2022.[29]: 115 In 2024 the counter-narcotics service seized 15 tonnes 106 kilograms of drugs, psychotropic substances and precursors of all kinds.[36]

Law No. 69 of 6 March 2024 governs narcotic drugs and entered into force six months after its publication on 12 March 2024. It controls "living organisms" that contain narcotics and are on the government's list. Gathering wild ones counts as making a drug. It bans such organisms for medical and veterinary use. Owners and users of land must take measures to destroy wild ones growing on their plots.[7] A Cabinet of Ministers resolution of 26 March 2025, No. 152, approved the control list and the table of sizes; it replaced the list of 2007.[37] Members of parliament have proposed using hemp for medicine (2023), legalising "light drugs of natural origin" (2024) and growing technical cannabis (2026); none of these proposals has become law.[19][38][20]

The Criminal Code of 28 October 2021 entered into force fifteen days after its official publication.[39] The illegal growing of narcotic-containing organisms in a large amount or by a group carries a fine of 1,000 to 2,000 calculation indicators or up to five years' imprisonment; in an especially large amount, five to ten years with confiscation of property. Making, acquiring or keeping narcotics in a large amount without intent to sell carries the same fine or up to five years; with intent to sell, five to eight years.[8] Smaller amounts are offences under the Code on Offences of 2021: a fine of 200 calculation indicators or 40 hours of community work for small amounts held without intent to sell. A person who fails to destroy wild plants or grows small amounts is fined 125 indicators.[40]

Enforcement

Botoeva describes campaigns called Kara-Kuurai, run each year in the hashish-making season by the police and local authorities, to find poppy and cannabis and make the owners of the fields responsible for destroying them. Local authorities were later made to check the destruction and to fine landowners who had not done it.[4]: 76 In 2010 the Issyk-Kul police set up brigades to destroy hemp in every district and local government under an operation code-named Kara kuurai.[41] The raid Mak-2014 surveyed 19,883.1 hectares in Issyk-Kul Region, found hemp on 4,083.3 hectares and destroyed 44,761 kilograms of it.[5] In 2015 the State Service on Drug Control ran the operation "Poppy 2015" with the support of the UNODC. More than 72 tonnes of cannabis had been destroyed in the Ak-Suu and Tyup districts since the start of the year, which the UNODC called a small part of the 550 hectares of wild cannabis in the province.[42]

In July 2018 the police burned 30 hectares of wild hemp in Jalal-Abad Region.[43] For the Kara-kuurai raid of July 2024, 90 brigades of local-government staff and volunteers were formed. In all, 627 hectares were mapped across the country. In Jalal-Abad Region the hemp was mowed on 100 hectares.[6] The first stage of MAK-2026 ran from 6 to 11 July 2026; in Batken Region it surveyed seven hectares and mowed and burned 3.4 tonnes of wild hemp.[44] A UNODC mission in Kyrgyzstan tested spectrometry cameras mounted on drones for finding stands of cannabis and ephedra.[45]

In the village Botoeva studied, a young man said the militia had come to look for fields of wild kendir and had cut it only in a small area of dense plants; he put the stands at fifty to a hundred hectares "on this mountain, on that mountain".[4]: 189 Makers ran the risk of being caught almost every day of the season, in summer and early autumn. The bribes paid on arrest ranged from 500 to 10,000 som, by the quantity carried and the maker's connections.[4]: 136, 181

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki: No growing regions documented yet.

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki: No growing areas documented yet.

Accessions

Accession IDNamePriorityCollectedArea
Botbaeva s.n., Ketmen-Tyube (1960)Botbaeva herbarium specimen, foothills of the Ketmen-Tyube basin, Jalal-Abad Region, Kyrgyzstan (1960)
Frolova 69022 (1969)Frolova 69022 herbarium specimen, gorge slope at Chon-Aryk, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (1969)
Gubanov s.n., Karakol (1956)Gubanov herbarium specimen, forestry nursery, Karakol, Issyk-Kul Region, Kyrgyzstan (1956)
Il'in 288 (1930)Il'in 288 herbarium specimen, Talas Alatau near Talas, Kyrgyzstan (1930)
Popova s.n., Pokrovka (1950)Popova herbarium specimen, Pokrovka, Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan (1950)
Sodombekov KPL 00133 (2004)Sodombekov KPL_00133 herbarium specimen, Taldy-Bulak, Chüy Region, Kyrgyzstan (2004)

Conservation status

The lectotype of var. asperrima from near Karakol is in St Petersburg;[21] Kyrgyz sheets of 1930 to 1969 are in the Moscow University Herbarium.[14][13] McPartland and Small called the collection and conservation of germplasm of the indigenous landraces of Central and South Asia, in their centres of diversity, "urgently needed".[21] The law requires landowners to destroy wild plants.[7] The stands are mown and burned each summer.[6]

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See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office for Central Asia (April 2008). Illicit drug trends in Central Asia (PDF) (Report). Paris Pact Initiative. p. 23.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Подольская, Д. (5 December 2020). "МВД Кыргызстана резко отреагировало на исключение каннабиса из списка наркотиков". 24.kg (in русский). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Botoeva, G. (2014). "Hashish as cash in a post-Soviet Kyrgyz village". International Journal of Drug Policy. 25 (6): 1227–1234. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.01.016.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 Botoeva, G. (2016). The local drug economy: the case of hashish production in a post-Soviet Kyrgyz village (PhD thesis). Colchester: University of Essex.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Кудрявцева, Т. (23 July 2014). "В Иссык-Кульской области за неделю уничтожено более 80 гектаров дикорастущей конопли". 24.kg (in русский). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Сотрудники СБНОН сожгли более 85 тонн конопли (фото)". Kaktus.media (in русский). 12 July 2024. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 О наркотических средствах, психотропных веществах, их аналогах и прекурсорах(Закон Кыргызской Республики No. 69), 6 March 2024, arts. 2, 7, 33 and 35.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Уголовный кодекс Кыргызской Республики(Кодекс Кыргызской Республики No. 127), 28 October 2021, arts. 282, 283 and 288, edition of 24 July 2026.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  9. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2006). "Review of the world cannabis situation" (PDF). Bulletin on Narcotics. LVIII (1 and 2). New York: United Nations (published 2008).
  10. ↑ "Cannabis valley in Kazakhstan to be destroyed with herbicides". Tengrinews. 9 October 2014. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Akmatova, A.T. (2024). "Правовая политика Советской Киргизии в сфере социальной безопасности (на опыте борьбы с распространением наркомании)". Вестник Ошского государственного университета. Право (in русский) (1(4)): 18–31. doi:10.52754/16948661_2024_1(4)_4.
  12. ↑ Komarov, V.L., ed. (1970) [1936]. Flora of the U.S.S.R. Vol. 5. Translated by N. Landau. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations. pp. 302–304 – via Internet Archive.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Specimen MW0818711: Cannabis sativa L." Moscow Digital Herbarium. Moscow State University. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Specimen MW0818709: Cannabis sativa L." Moscow Digital Herbarium. Moscow State University. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  15. ↑ "Specimen MW0818715: Cannabis sativa L." Moscow Digital Herbarium. Moscow State University. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  16. ↑ "Specimen MW0818708: Cannabis sativa L." Moscow Digital Herbarium. Moscow State University. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  17. ↑ "Occurrence 6315321416: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  18. ↑ Botoeva, G. (2021). "Multiple narratives of il/legality and im/morality: the case of small-scale hashish harvesting in Kyrgyzstan". Theoretical Criminology. 25 (2): 268–283. doi:10.1177/1362480619880344.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Маканбай кызы, Г. (2 November 2023). "Депутат предлагает не сжигать коноплю, а использовать в качестве лекарства". 24.kg (in русский). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "В Жогорку Кенеше предложили Минсельхозу выращивать технический каннабис (видео)". Kaktus.media (in русский). 26 February 2026. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144: 81–112. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
  22. ↑ "Туркестан". Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона (in русский). Vol. XXXIV. St Petersburg: Brockhaus–Efron. 1901. pp. 174–203 – via Wikisource.
  23. ↑ Уголовный кодекс Киргизской ССР, 29 December 1960, arts. 236 and 236-1, edition of 1 October 1997.Kirghiz SSR.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  24. ↑ Yuldasheva, G.M. (2026). Уголовная ответственность за незаконный оборот наркотических средств и психотропных веществ по законодательству Республики Таджикистан (PDF) (Candidate of Legal Sciences thesis) (in русский). Dushanbe: Tajik National University.
  25. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  26. ↑ "Convention on Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 16. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  27. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 19. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  28. ↑ Уголовный кодекс Кыргызской Республики(No. 68), 1 October 1997, art. 250, edition of 24 January 2017.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 International Narcotics Control Board (2024). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2023 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-003052-6. E/INCB/2023/1.
  30. ↑ Hillig, K.W. (2005). "Genetic evidence for speciation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae)". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 52 (2): 161–180. doi:10.1007/s10722-003-4452-y.
  31. ↑ Balant, M.; Vitales, D.; Wang, Z.; Barina, Z.; et al. (20 October 2024). "Integrating target capture with whole genome sequencing of recent and natural history collections to explain the phylogeography of wild-growing and cultivated Cannabis". bioRxiv. doi:10.1101/2024.10.17.618884.
  32. ↑ Размеры наркотических средств, психотропных веществ, их аналогов и прекурсоров, а также живых организмов, их содержащих(Приложение 3 к постановлению Кабинета Министров Кыргызской Республики No. 152), 26 March 2025, edition of 14 August 2026.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office for Central Asia (April 2008). Illicit drug trends in Central Asia (PDF) (Report). Paris Pact Initiative.
  34. ↑ Golunov, S. (2007). "Drug-trafficking through Russia's post-Soviet borders: problems, misperceptions, and countermeasures". Acta Slavica Iaponica. 24: 24–46. hdl:2115/39514.
  35. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2009). "1.3 Cannabis market" (PDF). World Drug Report 2009. Vienna: United Nations. p. 95.
  36. ↑ Алымбаев, Н. (15 January 2025). "Более 15 тонн наркотиков изъяли в КР в 2024 году. В СБНОН подвели итоги". 24.kg (in русский). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  37. ↑ О наркотических средствах, психотропных веществах, их аналогах и прекурсорах, подлежащих контролю в Кыргызской Республике(Постановление Кабинета Министров Кыргызской Республики No. 152), 26 March 2025.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  38. ↑ "Дастан Бекешев предложил легализовать в Кыргызстане легкие наркотики". Kaktus.media (in русский). 19 December 2024. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  39. ↑ О введении в действие Уголовного кодекса Кыргызской Республики(Закон Кыргызской Республики No. 126), 28 October 2021, art. 1.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  40. ↑ Кодекс Кыргызской Республики о правонарушениях(Кодекс Кыргызской Республики No. 128), 28 October 2021, arts. 96 and 97, edition of 6 October 2026.Kyrgyzstan.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  41. ↑ Высоцкий, С. (7 July 2010). "В Иссык-Кульской области Кыргызстана проводится операция по выявлению и уничтожению дикорастущей конопли и опиумного мака". 24.kg (in русский). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  42. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office for Central Asia (2015). "UNODC supports the eradication of wild cannabis in Kyrgyzstan". UNODC. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  43. ↑ Dzhumashova, A. (19 July 2018). "Policemen burn down 30 hectares of wild hemp in Jalal-Abad region". 24.kg. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  44. ↑ Жаныбек кызы, М. (7 July 2026). "В Баткенской области уничтожили 3,4 тонны дикорастущей конопли". 24.kg (in русский). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  45. ↑ Mikhaylov, D.; Thangavelloo, D.R.; Zolotykh, N.; Seleznev, A. (2025). "UAV mounted spectrometry camera solution for detecting illicit cannabis and ephedra plantations". Discover Applied Sciences. 7 (10) 1197. doi:10.1007/s42452-025-07693-9.
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