Hemp
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Hemp is Cannabis sativa grown for the bast fibre of its stem and for its seed. The word also names the fibre.[1] Plants selected for fibre and seed usually make little tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and much cannabidiol (CBD), which sets them apart from the plants grown for ganja, charas and hashish.[2] Modern law defines hemp by a ceiling on THC, most often 0.3 per cent of the dry weight.[2]
Hemp is among the oldest crops of East Asia, where a genome study of 2021 placed the first domestication of the plant.[3] For most of the last seven millennia it was grown in the temperate world almost only for its fibre.[2] The fibre made cloth, rope and paper. From the 15th to the 19th century it rigged and caulked the sailing fleets of Venice, Spain, France and the Ottoman Empire. In 1928 Russia had 966,000 hectares under hemp, more than any other country.[4] The seed was eaten now and then and pressed for oil.[2]
Scarce labour, competing natural and synthetic fibres, wood pulp, the end of sail and the plant's use as a drug reduced the crop in most of Europe and North America in the early and middle 20th century.[5] It returned from the 1990s under licence, with registered low-THC varieties.[2] Most of the old local varieties of western Europe and North America were lost with the crop.[6] Modern European cultivars descend from a few of them, chiefly Italian and Central Russian landraces.[6] Others survive as accessions in gene banks.[7]
Names
The English word comes from Old English hænep.[8] Its Proto-Germanic form, *hanipa-, is a loanword. The Greek kánnabis shows that it was borrowed before the consonant shifts of Grimm's law. John T. Koch thinks the word probably came from a language outside the Indo-European family. Greek kánnabis first appears in Herodotus, about 440 BC; forms such as qunnabu appear in Assyrian documents a few centuries earlier.[9]: 39 Michael Witzel counts the word among the Wanderwörter that travelled the length of Eurasia, with forms such as Church Slavonic konoplja, Kirghiz kandir and Hungarian kender.[10]: 34 The Russian конопля (konoplya) goes back to a Proto-Slavic *konopja, also an old loanword.[11]
In English the name spread in trade to other long fibres: "Manila hemp" for abacá, "sisal hemp" for sisal and henequen, "sunn hemp" for the fibre of Crotalaria and "India hemp" for jute. These fibres are unlike hemp. Flax, the fibre most like it, was never called hemp.[1] The name has been given to dozens of species in at least 22 genera. "Indian hemp" has meant both the drug plant of South Asia and the North American fibre plant Apocynum cannabinum.[5]
Many languages keep separate words for the plant, its fibre and the drug. In Russian the fibre is пенька (pen'ka).[12] Turkish names the plant kenevir, a borrowing from Greek,[13] while kendir, strictly the fibre drawn from the stalk, is the commoner name for the plant in popular speech;[14] the drug is esrar.[15] Thai calls hemp กัญชง (kanchong) and drug cannabis กัญชา (kancha).[16] The Korean names for the plant are 삼 (sam) and 대마 (daema); the cloth woven from it is 삼베 (sambe).[17]
The plant as a crop
Cannabis sativa is an annual and normally dioecious: male and female flowers grow on separate plants.[2] The male plants flower about two weeks before the females and die soon after shedding their pollen. A fibre crop is cut before seed sets, so both sexes give fibre. When labour was cheap the males were pulled first, since they give less fibre but finer.[2] In Russian villages the male plants were called посконь (poskon') and the seed-bearing females матерка (materka). Pulling the poskon' was women's work.[18][19]
In 1913 the botanist Lyster H. Dewey described three fairly distinct groups of forms, grown for fibre, for oil seed and for drugs.[1] Ernest Small now sorts the domesticated plants into four groups: European and East Asian hemp, both grown for fibre and seed, and two groups of drug plants.[2] Fibre varieties were selected for tall stems with long internodes and few branches, since the nodes break up the fibre bundles.[5] They are sown thick, which keeps the stalks unbranched and shades out weeds.[1][5] Seed crops were sown thinner so that the plants branched and set more seed.[5] Many modern European fibre cultivars are monoecious, with male and female flowers on one plant,[5] which removes the difference in ripening between the sexes and suits harvest by machine.[5][20] Their seed must be reselected at every multiplication, or male and female plants return to the crop.[6] Hemp is wind-pollinated and its pollen travels far, so seed of a pure variety is raised about 5 kilometres from other hemp.[5]
Hemp is a short-day plant. It flowers once the nights grow long enough; a crop that never meets that threshold in its season stays vegetative.[21] The stem gains most before flowering, so late-flowering varieties, with a long vegetative phase, give the most stem. Flowering also starts the formation of shorter, more lignified secondary fibres. A crop left standing until its seed ripens, for both seed and fibre, carries more of them.[21] Late-maturing southern hemp,[6] sown for fibre in the central belt of European Russia, gave one and a half to two times the fibre of the best local varieties.[22] Carried towards the equator, hemp failed. French attempts to take the fibre crop south in Indochina gave plants about 60 centimetres tall instead of several metres.[23] Manuel Díaz-Ordóñez explains the failure of most Spanish plantings in the tropical Americas by temperature: near the equator the lowest daily temperatures rarely fell to 10 °C, while hemp does best sown at dawn temperatures of 6–8 °C.[24]
Before 1970 the southern hemp varieties of the Soviet Union held 1.5 to 4.5 per cent THC and the Central Russian ones no more than 1.0 per cent.[25] The Japanese fibre landraces carried tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), as did the first pure line selected from one of them in the 1920s.[26] Of 23 principal varieties surveyed in Yunnan and published in 1993, 43.5 per cent were classed as drug type.[27] Breeding for low THC began in the 1970s: in the Soviet Union in 1973, at Krasnodar, at Glukhov and at the Vavilov Institute,[25] and in Tochigi, for a line without THCA, in 1974.[26] The first varieties of the French growers' federation kept THC near 0.1 per cent.[20]
History
Origins
Where and when hemp was first grown is disputed. Guangpeng Ren and colleagues placed the first domestication of Cannabis in East Asia on genome evidence and dated the divergence of hemp and drug types to about 4,000 years before present.[3] Later studies question their sampling and their grouping of the plants.[28][29] Hemp fruits from the Okinoshima site in Japan have been dated by radiocarbon to about 10,000 calibrated years before present; the team that dated them wrote that hemp "may have been cultivated and utilized" there from the earliest Jōmon period.[30] Finds of cannabis fruits in East Asia increase markedly between about 5000 and 4000 calibrated years before present.[31] In Europe, reviews of pollen cores and excavated finds place the start of cultivation in the Copper Age or the Bronze Age.[32][33] In the early Iron Age woven fabrics of hemp bast covered the couch of the Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave in south-western Germany.[34] Herodotus wrote in the fifth century BC that hemp grew in Scythia both wild and sown. The Thracians, he wrote, made garments of it so like linen that only someone who knew hemp could tell them apart.[35]
Cloth and grain in Asia
A harvest list in the Shijing names hemp with grain, beans and wheat. The Eastern Han commentator Zheng Xuan counted it among the "five grains".[36][37] The sixth-century Qimin yaoshu gives separate instructions for a fibre crop, sown from white seed, and a seed crop, sown from spotted black seed.[38] In Korea, hemp cloth was a basic clothing material and a form of tax before cotton spread.[39] Under the later Joseon hemp held on in the northern provinces while the districts further south turned to cotton.[39] Hemp is the traditional cloth of mourning there.[40] Japan's national hemp area grew from about 14,000 hectares in the late 1880s to about 25,000 around 1897 and then fell as machine-spun cotton replaced hemp in fishing nets and everyday clothing; growing concentrated in Tochigi.[41] In the uplands of Laos and northern Vietnam, the Hmong grew hemp for the cloth of their skirts. Charles Crévost and Charles Lemarié, colonial agronomists writing between 1919 and 1921, held that the Hmong had brought textile hemp from China in the 17th century.[23] In Bhutan a British mission of 1837–38 found hemp grown with barley and buckwheat.[42]
Hemp and the sailing navies
A sailing warship used hemp in its rigging, cables and sails, in the oakum that caulked its hull and in the match-cord that fired its guns.[43][44] A ship of 60 guns built in the mid-18th century needed about 90 tonnes of hemp. Díaz-Ordóñez and Antonio José Rodríguez Hernández put the needs of the whole Spanish Empire at about 20,000 tonnes a year by the end of that century.[43] After timber and artillery, hemp was the third largest cost of building a French 74-gun ship.[45] In 1455 Venice set up hemp plantations between Este, Montagnana and Cologna Veneta to feed the rope-works of its Arsenal.[46] France built its royal rope-works, the Corderie Royale at Rochefort, between 1666 and 1669.[47] The Ottoman state assigned the hemp districts of Çarşamba, Terme and Fatsa, near Samsun, directly to the Imperial Dockyard in Istanbul.[14]
In the middle of the 18th century hemp fibre was Russia's most important export after grain. Until 1870 most of the fibre and tow went to England; after 1870 most went to Germany.[4] European Russia produced about 40 per cent of all the hemp fibre made in Europe in 1895.[48] At the end of the 19th century Italy was the second producer and exporter, after the Russian Empire.[49] The Enciclopedia Italiana of 1930 ranked Italy second in the world for the quantity of its fibre and first for its quality.[50]
The Americas
The Spanish Crown sent hemp seed to the Indies from 1513.[51] The first plantings failed. Díaz-Ordóñez finds a lasting crop only around Quillota and La Ligua in Chile, whose cordage was shipped up the Pacific coast to Callao.[52] In 1619 the General Assembly of the Colony of Virginia required householders holding seed of "hempe also both English and Indian" to try it.[53] In New France the intendant Jean Talon requisitioned the colony's thread in 1666 so that the settlers would sow hemp.[54] Dewey dated the first crop in Kentucky to 1775. Chinese hemp seed was first imported into the United States in 1857. The larger Chinese types then replaced the common hemp of European origin.[1]
Decline and return
France grew about 176,000 hectares of hemp in 1840, 26,000 in 1900 and 632 in 1960.[55] Italy's crop fell from 85,000 hectares in 1936–39 to 16,000 in 1958[56] and 270 in 1973.[57] In France production and the mills collapsed after the Second World War, as ships went over to motors and cloth to cotton and then to synthetic fibres.[58] Imported jute replaced hemp fibre in Turkey.[59] In the United States, production peaked in 1943 at about 71,000 hectares grown for the Second World War and stopped after the war, once the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was again enforced.[60] Canada prohibited growing cannabis without special authorisation in 1938.[61] In the Soviet Union, a resolution of 1987 forbade hemp on the household plots of collective farmers and workers.[4] Small and Marcus list the causes for Europe and North America: cheap labour for the traditional work grew scarce, other natural and synthetic fibres competed for cloth and cordage, chemical wood pulp displaced hemp rag in paper, the end of sail reduced the market for canvas and the plant's use as a drug gave hemp a bad image.[5]
From the 1990s hemp came back in western Europe, Canada and later the United States, as a licensed crop of registered varieties with a THC limit.[2] In the European Union registered hemp varieties drew the subsidy for fibre crops in the 1990s.[6] Around 2000 some fibre was still grown in Russia, China, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary, the countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Korea, Chile and Peru.[5] France, which had kept a small crop and its own breeding, grew 22,600 hectares in 2024, more than half the hemp area of Europe.[58] Canada allowed hemp again in 1998[62] and had about 27,000 hectares in 2013.[63] In China, Yunnan licensed industrial hemp from 2010.[64] China's national bast-fibre germplasm bank held more than 1,300 hemp accessions in 2020.[65]
From stalk to fibre
The hemp stalk is hollow. Around its woody core, the hurds or shives, lies the bast, which holds two kinds of fibre: coarse primary bast fibres in the outer part, running nearly the length of the stalk, and smaller secondary fibres further in, many of which stay stuck to the hurds when the hemp is broken. The fibre of commerce is mostly primary bast fibre.[1] In fibre varieties half the stem tissue can be bark, more than half of it long primary fibre; plants not selected for fibre rarely have as much as 15 per cent fibre in the bark.[5] A fibre crop is sown thick, so that the stalks grow tall and branch only at the top.[1] It is cut in early flowering, before seed sets.[5] Dewey advised cutting when the male plants were in full flower; hemp cut earlier gave finer and softer fibre, but weaker and less of it.[1]
Retting frees the fibre. Bacteria partly dissolve the gums that bind the fibres together, until the bark and its fibre come away readily from the stalk. In dew retting the cut stalks lie on the ground for four weeks to four months; in water retting they are sunk in water.[1] In Italy, where the whitest and softest fibre was made, stalks were retted twice in tanks of soft water.[1] In Emilia the bundles were sunk in a macero, a water-filled pit, held down with stones; the pits stank and were associated with rheumatism and malaria.[66] Pits and ditches were used to ret hemp at Vimont in Normandy in the 13th and 14th centuries.[67] On the Chengdu plain of Sichuan the crop was retted for three or four days in shallow pits and bleached over burning sulphur.[68] Steaming gave better fibre than either dew or water retting in Japan.[1] In Korea the stalks, stripped of their leaves, are still steamed in a pit called a samgut, then peeled and dried in the sun.[69] Water retting has been largely given up where labour is expensive or environmental rules forbid it.[5]
The retted and dried stalks are then broken, which crushes the woody core into short pieces, and scutched, which separates the remaining hurds, the short fibre or tow and the long line fibre. A decorticator does both in one machine.[5] For the finest uses the fibre is also hackled and combed to remove the remaining bits of stalk and broken fibre.[5] In Russian, pen'ka is hemp fibre freed from the stalk by retting, breaking, scutching and combing.[12]
Hemp fibre is strong and resists decay, which made it the material of rope, nets, sailcloth and caulking oakum.[5] In the French navy of the 17th to 19th centuries it also went into drying-oil paints, the paper of artillery cartridges and sailors' hammocks.[44] Hemp cloth is stronger and lasts longer than cotton or wool of the same weight but is coarser.[1] In Korea it is graded by thread count: the hemp cloth of Gokseong is woven at 9 seung and that of Andong at 12.[69] Worn hemp cloth was made into paper. Of 130 Chinese manuscripts of the 5th to 10th centuries from Dunhuang and Turpan that Agnieszka Helman-Ważny examined, 88 were on rag paper, nearly all of ramie with some hemp and four of hemp alone.[70] Around 2000 hemp pulp went mostly into specialty papers such as cigarette paper and bank notes. The hurds are used for animal bedding, since they absorb up to five times their weight in moisture. Mixed with lime, they are used for walls, floors and plaster.[5]
Seed, oil and food
Hemp seed was counted as a grain in ancient China, although people have eaten little of it directly elsewhere.[5] In Europe and northern Asia, until about the 19th century, the plant was grown almost only for fibre; the seed was eaten now and then and pressed for oil for lubricating and lighting.[2] In 1848 the Chinese botanist Wu Qijun wrote that hemp seed had dropped out of the diet only recently.[71] In Korea the seed is pressed for cooking and lamp oil. The press-cake is fed to livestock or used as fertiliser.[72] Russians called hemp oil the oil of fast days.[73] Seed dishes include siemieniotka, a Silesian Christmas Eve soup of pounded seed,[74] bhangolu, parched seed eaten with parched grain in Kulu[75] and the Japanese seasoning shichimi togarashi.[76] Hempseed oil was also used in paints, varnishes and soap.[5]
For most of its history the seed of a fibre crop was a by-product, used at most as animal feed.[77] The whole seed holds 25 to 35 per cent oil and 20 to 25 per cent protein, most of it the storage protein edestin.[77] Linoleic acid makes up more than half of the oil and alpha-linolenic acid is the next largest part, a ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids of 3:1 to 5:1; the oil also contains gamma-linolenic and stearidonic acids.[77] The seed is eaten whole or dehulled and pressed cold for oil, and what remains after pressing is ground into a flour; removing the hull gives the product richest in protein, over 50 per cent.[77]
Until recently oilseed forms were selected for a heavy yield of seed and grown at lower density, so that the plants branched.[5] Small treats oilseed hemp as a grain crop, whose yield depends on plant architecture. He has argued that short, early-ripening plants suit it better than the tall plants of the fibre tradition.[2] The Finnish 'Finola' and the Canadian 'Anka' were among the first cultivars bred for seed alone: short, little-branched and early to mature in the north.[5] Hemp seed contains virtually no THC; the small amounts found in seed foods come from resin on the bracts and leaves that touches the seed.[5]
Landraces and old varieties
Until the 20th century hemp was grown from local varieties, kept by farmers who saved their own seed. In Russia these were the кряжи (kryazhi). Until the 1930s the crop was grown mostly on household plots and sown from these varieties.[4] Italian growers kept their own seed. Seed of Carmagnola hemp was also sold abroad for sowing.[50] In Japan each local landrace was fairly mixed.[26] In the Tai'an district of Shandong in the early 1990s farmers sowed saved seed of the local fibre landrace each year with no deliberate selection, except possibly for large seed.[78]
Etienne de Meijer, surveying fibre cultivars in 1995, distinguished Central and Northern ecotypes of Russia, Ukraine and Finland; Southern ecotypes of the Mediterranean, the Balkans, Turkey and the Caucasus; and the Far Eastern hemp of China, Japan and Korea.[6] Soviet agronomy divided cultivated hemp into 14 geographic types, each made up of local kryazhi.[79] Southern forms had the largest seeds and grew 2.5 to 4 metres tall; Central Russian hemp reached 1.25 to 1.5 metres.[79] In the far north, the old hemp of Archangel governorate was 36 to 50 centimetres tall.[80]
The plant breeder Paolo Ranalli calls Carmagnola "the oldest hemp landrace grown in Italy"; mass selection turned it into the Bolognese, Toscana and Ferrarese ecotypes.[81] In Shandong the local fibre landrace was known as Lai Wu or Fei Cheng hemp, after two of its counties.[78] In Tochigi the agricultural experiment station selected the landrace of Nanma village from 1918 to 1928.[26] De Meijer lists among the landraces behind modern cultivars Kastamonu from Turkey, the Bulgarian Silistra landrace, the central Ukrainian Novgorod-Seversk landrace and Ermakovskaya Mestnaya, still grown in Siberia in 1995.[6]
The Hungarian 'Kompolti', registered in 1954, was selected from Fleischmann hemp, of Italian origin. The German monoecious 'Fibrimon', bred by Reinhold von Sengbusch in 1951–55, combined Central Russian material with late-flowering landraces from Italy and Turkey. The French cultivars were selected from it or crossed with it. Several Soviet and Ukrainian cultivars descend from 'Yuzhnaya Krasnodarskaya', which was selected from Italian hemp. The American cultivars 'Kymington', 'Chington' and 'Arlington' were selected from Chinese introductions.[6] 'Ferramington' crossed 'Kymington' with the Italian Ferrara landrace.[6][81] In Japan the cultivar 'Tochigishiro', without THCA, was bred by crossing the Tochigi line with a line found in a landrace of Saga Prefecture, in Kyushu. Its registration was applied for in 1982.[26]
De Meijer counted the extinction of local cultivars among the obstacles to restarting the crop in Western countries, all of which except France had given it up or never had it; the Italian cultivars had been practically unavailable for decades.[6] The Kentucky cultivars, grown until the mid-1950s, are extinct.[6] The Korean seed lots received by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1916 and 1930 no longer exist.[82][83] The largest hemp collection, at the Vavilov Institute in St Petersburg, held 563 accessions; Robert C. Clarke and Mark Merlin report that it has lost diversity and purity since the late 1980s through small population sizes and incomplete isolation.[7] De Meijer regarded the weedy populations that persist in many continental areas as descendants of fibre crops once grown there.[6]
Hemp and drug cannabis in law
The International Opium Convention signed at Geneva in 1925 defined "Indian hemp" as "the dried flowering or fruiting tops of the pistillate plant Cannabis sativa L. from which the resin has not been extracted".[84] In 1934 the Soviet Union banned the sowing of Indian hemp outside state crops for medicine,[85] while the party ordered all other kinds of hemp to be grown in the largest possible quantities.[86] South Korea's Narcotics Act of 1957 listed the plant, its seed and resin as a narcotic but left out the stalk of the mature plant and seed that cannot germinate.[87]
The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 defines cannabis as "the flowering or fruiting tops of the cannabis plant (excluding the seeds and leaves when not accompanied by the tops)".[88]: art. 1(1)(b) Its article 28 adds: "This Convention shall not apply to the cultivation of the cannabis plant exclusively for industrial purposes (fibre and seed) or horticultural purposes."[88]: art. 28(2) Parties must still take measures against the misuse of the leaves.[88]: art. 28(3) The official Commentary of 1973 judged that leaving hemp outside the controls was not without risk, since drug material can be taken from the plant after harvest. It recorded two answers that the Commission on Narcotic Drugs had considered in the 1950s: breeding a strain poor in or free of the drug or replacing hemp with other fibre plants.[89]: 313
Other countries licensed or stopped all growing of the plant. The United States taxed cannabis under the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937.[60] Canada required special authorisation from 1938.[61] Japan has licensed growers since its Cannabis Control Act of 1948, which defines cannabis as the plant other than its seeds and mature stalks.[90][91] South Korea's Cannabis Control Act of 1976 made the hemp grower, one who grows the plant for fibre or seed, a licensed category.[92] In Italy in the 1990s growing was not allowed until a cultivar carried a morphological marker linked to low THC.[6]
THC limits
The usual ceiling of 0.3 per cent THC goes back to Small and the botanist Arthur Cronquist, who in 1976 used it to divide Cannabis sativa into two subspecies, sativa below the line and indica above it.[5] Small later called it an arbitrary threshold. In his account the least amount of THC that intoxicates is about 1 per cent.[2] Canada's Industrial Hemp Regulations of 2018 define industrial hemp as cannabis with no more than 0.3 per cent THC in its flowering heads and leaves.[93] In the European Union the limit decides which hemp fields qualify for farm payments: 0.2 per cent under the regulation of 2013,[94]: art. 32(6) 0.3 per cent for the period of the common agricultural policy that began in 2023.[95]: art. 1, 4(4) In the United States, the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 removed hemp from the definition of marihuana and defined it as Cannabis sativa L. with no more than 0.3 per cent delta-9 THC on a dry-weight basis.[96] A law signed on 12 November 2025 rewrote the definition, with effect a year later, to count total THC, including its acid, and to exclude final products with more than 0.4 milligrams of THC and similar cannabinoids per container.[97] A law of September 2026 then limited the new definition, until 11 December 2026, to products with cannabinoids that the plant cannot produce naturally.[98] Japan's Type 1 cultivators, who grow the plant for products of its seed and stalk, have since 1 March 2025 been held to 0.3 per cent of the plant's dry weight.[99][100] Yunnan defines industrial hemp as plants with less than 0.3 per cent THC.[64]
Some countries regulate hemp under its own name. In Thailand a ministerial regulation on kanchong approved in 2016 opened 15 districts in six provinces to the crop, at first for government bodies only.[16] In Turkey licensed hemp is grown for fibre, seed and stalk in 21 provinces.[101][102]
In 2019 Chinese narcotics officials said that hemp grown to extract cannabidiol still needed approval under the controls on drug cannabis, because extraction from young leaves and flower buds generally gave more than 0.3 per cent THC.[103] In 2020 the Court of Justice of the European Union held that a member state may not ban the sale of cannabidiol lawfully produced in another member state from the whole plant unless the ban is needed to protect public health.[104] An Italian decree-law of April 2025 forbade the import, sale, processing and transport of hemp flowers and products made from them.[105]
See also
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 Dewey, Lyster H. (1914). "Hemp". Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 1913. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 283–346.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 Small, E. (2018). "Dwarf germplasm: the key to giant Cannabis hempseed and cannabinoid crops". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 65 (4): 1071–1107. doi:10.1007/s10722-017-0597-y.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Ren, G.; Zhang, X.; Li, Y.; Ridout, K.; Serrano-Serrano, M.L.; Yang, Y.; Liu, A.; Ravikanth, G.; Nawaz, M.A.; Mumtaz, A.S.; Salamin, N.; Fumagalli, L. (2021). "Large-scale whole-genome resequencing unravels the domestication history of Cannabis sativa". Science Advances. 7 (29) eabg2286. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg2286.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Serkov, V.A.; Smirnov, A.A.; Aleksandrova, M.R. (2018). "История коноплеводства в России". Масличные культуры. Научно-технический бюллетень ВНИИМК (in русский) (3 (175)): 132–141. doi:10.25230/2412-608X-2018-3-175-132-141.
- ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 Small, E.; Marcus, D. (2002). "Hemp: a new crop with new uses for North America". In Janick, J.; Whipkey, A. (eds.). Trends in New Crops and New Uses. Alexandria, Virginia: ASHS Press. pp. 284–326.
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 de Meijer, E. P. M. (1995). "Fibre hemp cultivars: a survey of origin, ancestry, availability and brief agronomic characteristics". Journal of the International Hemp Association. 2 (2): 66–73.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Clarke, Robert C.; Merlin, Mark D. (2016). "Cannabis domestication, breeding history, present-day genetic diversity, and future prospects". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 35 (5–6): 293–327. doi:10.1080/07352689.2016.1267498.
- ↑ Bosworth, Joseph (2014). "hænep". In Toller, Thomas Northcote; Christ, Sean; Tichy, Ondřej (eds.). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Online. Prague: Faculty of Arts, Charles University. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
- ↑ Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic: Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European Vocabulary in the North and West (PDF). Aberystwyth: University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. ISBN 978-1-907029-32-5.
- ↑ Witzel, Michael (2003). Mair, Victor H. (ed.). "Linguistic evidence for cultural exchange in prehistoric western Central Asia" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers (129). Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.
- ↑ Polyakova, E.N. (2010). "О связи языка и культуры по данным лексики и ономастики (фамилия Коноплёв и слово конопля)". Вестник Пермского университета. Российская и зарубежная филология (in русский) (5 (11)).
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Dal, V.I. (1882). "Пенька". Толковый словарь живого великорусскаго языка (in русский). Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 26 – via Wikisource.
- ↑ "kenevir". Nişanyan Sözlük (in Türkçe). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Taştemir, Mehmet (2003). "Karadeniz Bölgesinde Kendir-Keten Üretimi ve Kullanım Alanları (XV. Yüzyıl Sonu - XVII. Yüzyıl İlk Yarısı)" [Hemp and flax production and uses in the Black Sea region (late 15th to first half of the 17th century)]. Türk Kültürü İncelemeleri Dergisi (in Türkçe) (8): 1–24. doi:10.24058/tki.108.
- ↑ "sır". Nişanyan Sözlük (in Türkçe). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 จตุพร พ่วงทอง (26 January 2018). "ป.ป.ส.พาตะลุยแปลง "กัญชง" – ชมวิถีชุมชนม้ง ชีวิตยึดโยง ใยกัญชง ตั้งแต่เกิด-จนตาย" [The narcotics board tours the hemp plots: a Hmong community bound to hemp fibre from birth to death]. Matichon (in ไทย). Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ Sim, Y. (2022). "삼베" [Sambe]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in 한국어). Academy of Korean Studies. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ Dal, V.I. (1881). "Конопель". Толковый словарь живого великорусскаго языка (in русский). Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). p. 153 – via Wikisource.
- ↑ Dal, V.I. (1882). "Посконь". Толковый словарь живого великорусскаго языка (in русский). Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 343 – via Wikisource.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Thouminot, C. (2015). "La sélection française du chanvre : panorama et perspectives". OCL (in français). 22 (6) D603. doi:10.1051/ocl/2015044.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Salentijn, E.M.J.; Petit, J.; Trindade, L.M. (2019). "The complex interactions between flowering behavior and fiber quality in hemp". Frontiers in Plant Science. 10 614. doi:10.3389/fpls.2019.00614.
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