Cannabis cultivation in Colombia
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Cannabis cultivation in Colombia is the growing of Cannabis sativa in Colombia, almost entirely as a drug crop for marijuana. Spanish efforts to grow hemp for rope failed. Fibre hemp was tried in the 20th century only in experimental plantings, at Palmira in 1929 and at Buga in 1937.[1]: 395–396 Marijuana plots are reported from the 1920s.[2]: 209 In the 1970s peasant growers on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, financed by traders, raised the export crop of the bonanza marimbera. Since the 1990s most of the crop has been grown for the home market, much of it in northern Cauca, where growers light their plants at night and grow them from cuttings. There the older seed-grown types have given way to hybrids.[3]: 58–59, 85–86 Since 2015 the state has licensed growing for medical and scientific use. A person may grow up to 20 plants for personal use without a licence.[4][5]
The marijuana of the export years was sold under names such as Santa Marta Gold, punto rojo and mona. Writers disagree on whether these were distinct kinds of plant or grades of one crop that differed with place and handling. They also disagree on how much the Sierra Nevada crop owed to seed brought from Mexico, Hawaii and Thailand.[6]: ch. 3 Herbarium sheets of Colombian cannabis survive from 1941.[7] Seed sellers now offer lines under the old names.
Where it is grown
In the years after 1945 the Colombian press reported small clandestine plots, above all on the Atlantic coast, in northern Antioquia and in the Valle del Cauca.[1]: 405 In September 1950 the police seized seed ready to sow on a plot of ten plazas in rural Palmira,[8]: 11 and in the 1950s crops were planted in Corinto, Caloto, Palmira and Florida and the first peasant growers were arrested.[9]: 73 A seller arrested in Cali in 1954 said that he had once had a plantation on the banks of the Cauca river.[10]: 413 In 1968 the police found 21 pounds of seed on a farm at Algeciras, in Huila. They also found fields in Miranda, in Cauca.[2]: 220 The lists of growing departments that officials drew up in 1961 and 1973 are given in History of cannabis in Colombia.
About 1972 production moved from the banks of the Cauca river in the coffee zone and the country around Medellín to isolated plots in the Sierra Nevada.[3]: 51 The crop spread from the Tucurinca and Pénjamo areas to the rest of the range and to the Serranía del Perijá.[6]: ch. 5 In 1975 the security service in Riohacha named the valley of the Ancho river and Las Flores, both in Pénjamo, as the largest producers in La Guajira, followed by San Juan del Cesar on the south-eastern side of the Sierra and by Fonseca and Villanueva on the Perijá.[6]: ch. 3 Most fields lay below 1,600 metres, the upper limit of the coffee belt.[11]: 35 By 1979 growing was also reported in Córdoba, Sucre, the Valle del Cauca, Cauca, the Darién and the eastern plains.[12]: 108–109 A study by the financiers' association ANIF, reprinted in 1980, found that the Sierra still held at least 60 per cent of the area but that growing had spread to Arauca and Vichada, the Sinú and Atrato valleys, Urabá, the Darién and the coffee zones.[12]: 250–251 In the 1970s large plantings grew up at Obando, in the north of the Valle del Cauca, and at San José del Palmar, in the Chocó.[13]: 246
In 1978 the attorney general's office put the area under marijuana in the north of the country at about 70,000 hectares. The economists Junguito and Caballero judged that figure exaggerated and put the area nearer 40,000 hectares. Hernando Ruiz estimated 30,000.[14] ANIF found 19,000 hectares sown out of 300,000 suited to the crop.[11]: 36 Estimates from satellite images put the area at a peak of about 13,000 hectares in 1987 and at 3,000 in 1991.[14] Other figures for the boom years are given in Bonanza marimbera.
In 2017 the drug observatory of the Ministry of Justice placed the crop between 50 and 2,000 metres, with the main growing zones in Magdalena, Tolima, Cauca, Meta and Guaviare.[15]: 78 The crop-monitoring system run by the government with the United Nations has no census method for the area under marijuana.[16]: 113
Growing practice
Plots among food crops
Before the export trade marijuana was grown in small plots, often beside food crops. In the Valle del Cauca and northern Cauca the police of the 1950s and 1960s arrested peasants who planted cannabis among their subsistence crops.[8]: 46 In the Sierra Nevada, in the account of the historian Lina Britto, families of day labourers grew it to live on and to barter, and for them growing and selling the plant was a tradition.[6]: ch. 3 In Bogotá plants raised from seed of Palmira were kept in pots in an office, first sown in September 1968 and then every eight months (Velasco s.n.).[17]
The Sierra Nevada export crop
The growers of the export crop depended on outside money and worked plots of up to ten hectares, three on average.[6]: ch. 3 Some paid the landowner up to 12 per cent of the crop as rent; others worked under amediería, a form of sharecropping in which the grower supplied labour and inputs and shared the profit equally with the owner.[6]: ch. 3 The historians Darío Betancourt and Martha Luz García write that the buyer supplied the seed and advanced half the value of the harvest,[13]: 56 and a press report of the time quoted the offer made to hill farmers: "Plántame una hectárea, yo te pago la mitad por adelantado" (plant me a hectare, I'll pay you half in advance).[12]: 180–181 Britto, citing the anthropologist William L. Partridge, writes that by the mid-1970s about 60 per cent of growers planted without a buyer.[6]: ch. 3 The economist Francisco Thoumi found that most of the Sierra's growers had roots in the region and that many left the business after a couple of good harvests.[18]
A survey of 20 farms by the economists Betty Solórzano and Frida de Dangond, made in 1977, describes the farming year.[6]: ch. 3 Growers cleared land in January and February, slashed and burned it, and raised seedlings in nurseries on the pattern of coffee. They transplanted the seedlings at one to two feet high, in rows, from April to June as the rains came, picked off pests by hand two or three times, fertilised with urea, sprayed DDT and separated out the male plants so that they would not pollinate the females. The harvest came after eight or nine months, sometimes five or six, and the plot was then cleaned and left fallow.[6]: ch. 3, n. 73[12]: 208–209 Most of the growers in the survey were settlers (colonos) financed by traffickers.[12]: 208–209 Betancourt and García describe sowing differently: after the clearing, "los indios y los 'cachacos'" (the Indians and the people from the interior) scattered seed from sacks over the cleared ground, and the first harvest came about five months later.[13]: 54, 56 Britto states that the Indigenous peoples of the Sierra Nevada have not grown or used marijuana.[6]: ch. 3, n. 27 The journalist José Cervantes Angulo wrote that coffee and marijuana were planted side by side, with cassava and plantain between them as cover.[12]: 97
Seed was bought, and growers chose it as they chose maize. A transporter from San Juan del Cesar who also planted the crop told Britto that whoever planted the seed "selected the most seasoned seed, the one that produced best, like corn".[6]: ch. 3 Settlers in the Don Diego basin recalled that the harvesters separated the flower heads of the female plants, a step they called the desmoñe, and kept their seed for the next crop.[19]: 39 A team of the natural-resources institute Inderena described four steps in every harvest: raspado, tying the stem a few inches above the roots to hasten ripening; cutting the plants and drying them in the sun for their seed; ordeño, cutting the flowers by hand or with scissors; and packing.[6]: ch. 3, n. 79 The crop was dried on trojas, the racks used for coffee, pressed and packed in fique sacks, and graded A, B or C at the coastal stores.[12]: 97[13]: 56 The writer Javier Ortiz Cassiani remembers the harvest of early November 1978 at La Tigra, a settlers' village on the lower slopes of the Sierra: the plants were cut and stripped, the buds laid in the sun to dry and then packed in fique sacks.[20] A reporter for the magazine Guajira wrote that some growers took up to 50 quintales from two hectares and others five to ten a hectare.[12]: 302–305
Settlers in the Don Diego basin cleared new ground every two years because marijuana yielded well on virgin land, and they planted large areas of it on Kogi land at Río Molino.[19]: 38–39 The Fundación ProSierra Nevada de Santa Marta estimated that 100,000 hectares of primary forest were cut down for marijuana, reducing forest cover by 82 per cent.[6]: ch. 3 The economist Joaquín Viloria de la Hoz cites estimates of 120,000 to 150,000 hectares, and puts the crop in the 1980s at about 12 per cent of the Sierra above 200 metres, with the worst damage in the basins of the Frío, Aracataca, Sevilla, Toribio, Córdoba and Guachaca rivers.[21]: 42 When spraying began in the 1980s, growers made their fields smaller and mixed marijuana with food crops.[22]: 32
The south-west in the 1970s
The anthropologist Anthony Henman, who did fieldwork in Cauca in 1973 and 1974, described growing there. Seed was sown at the start of the two rainy seasons, in February or March and in September or October, in large unshaded clearings, rarely mixed with any crop but maize. Growers fertilised with animal manure or human waste mixed with water, pulled out male plants as soon as they could tell them and kept small plots of fertilised female plants for seed; many said that their plants grew again from the roots and stems. Stripping the leaves, which had little market value, was common.[23]: 281–282 The herb was dried in the shade, given a short time in the sun and cured on a barbacoa, a frame of wood or bamboo, sometimes with cane juice, panela, honey and water or aguardiente added.[23]: 278
Henman placed the best herb of the south-west at 800 to 1,200 metres, in the belt between Cali and Corinto on the Western Cordillera and in the Cauca valley, and judged the marijuana of the hot lowlands of the Chocó, the lower Magdalena, the Amazon basin and the eastern plains of less interest.[23]: 280 At Silvia, in 1974, a highland marijuana called la negra was sold.[23]: 280 Black smallholders near Cali grew and smoked marijuana, while the large commercial plantations lay on the Western Cordillera in Morales and El Tambo, and landless peasants travelled to the hills behind El Tambo at harvest.[23]: 283, 286–287
Greenhouses, lights and cuttings
By an estimate of 2004, small growers took one and a half harvests a year and larger growers two, using better methods.[24]: 3 In the late 2010s peasant and Indigenous growers in northern Cauca hung lamps over their plants at night to make them grow faster, so that the mountains were lit after dark.[3]: 59 A person interviewed in Toribío told the Dejusticia researchers Luis Felipe Cruz and Isabel Pereira that every indica type grown from cuttings without seed is called creepy.[3]: 58
In a study published in 2009, leaf samples had a mean THC content of 15.7 per cent from Lejanías, in the Ariari, and 11.0 per cent from Corinto, against 2.8 per cent from the Sierra Nevada and 1.9 per cent from Riosucio, in Caldas; the authors suggested that growers in the first two regions used improved varieties.[25]: 237–238
Kinds of plant
Growers, traders and writers used many names for Colombian marijuana. Henman divided what the world market called "Colombian" into at least three main types: la mona or gold, mango viche or green, and the punto rojo or red of Cauca.[23]: 275–276 A thesis of 1976 at the Universidad Tecnológica del Magdalena worked with two varieties "conocidas popularmente como 'negra' y 'mona'" (popularly known as negra and mona).[26]: 47 In 1973 Partridge gathered two female plants near Aracataca, one labelled with the local name la morada and the other la blanca.[27][28] In Cauca the national police describe four native varieties, cominera, corinto, mango biche and punto rojo.[3]: 86–87 The names and the seed sold under them are set out in Colombia and Bonanza marimbera.
Inderena's team planted the same seed in different places under controlled conditions, obtained different kinds of plant and concluded that the differences came from the way the crop was grown.[6]: ch. 3, n. 79 Henman suggested that mango viche and punto rojo might be one plant harvested at different stages, and that the gold colour of the Sierra's mona came from girdling the stem two or three weeks before the harvest, a practice unknown in Cauca.[23]: 277 In 2017 the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime found no evidence of a taxonomic difference between the marijuana sold as cripy, which fetched far higher prices, and common marijuana, and put the difference down to the way each was marketed and named.[16]: 119
Growers told the sociologist Alfredo Molano's team that the seed of the Frío valley, rated the best in the Sierra by 1966, had come from Mexico.[6]: ch. 3 Ariel Martínez, an agronomist who worked for Inderena in Santa Marta in the early 1970s, held that growers crossed a native plant of Quebrada Seca and the Tapias river with plants from Hawaii and Sonora, with help from American buyers, and that the cross was Santa Marta Gold.[6]: ch. 3 Time reported in 1979 a pale plant of the Cielo Azul heights "developed as a hybrid two years ago with seeds from Thailand" (see Mona Cielo Azul).[29] Soldiers found a nursery of 400 young plants at La Cueva that appeared to have been used for trials.[12]: 100–101 The ANIF study held that growers had improved their methods with foreign techniques passed on by their American "socios" (partners), among them a Spanish-language growing booklet printed in Florida.[12]: 248–249
Hybrids and the older types
In northern Cauca the older seed-grown types gave way in the 2010s to creepy and to plants from feminised seed. They needed more work, gave less flower and suffered more from pests and disease.[30]: 13 Growers told Cruz and Pereira that punto rojo and patimorada died out when feminised seed arrived, because the native plants spoiled the feminised crops grown near them.[3]: 86 A study published in 2025 by the security and drugs research centre CESED at the Universidad de los Andes found that patimorada, itself a creepy type, made up 90 per cent of the crops in northern Cauca during its fieldwork. Citing Cruz and Pereira, it attributes the near extinction of corinto and punto rojo, or their hybridisation with foreign varieties, to the arrival of feminised seed.[30]: 12–13 On the north coast a reporter for VICE wrote in 2013 that growers were producing little Colombian Gold and had turned to hybrids bred in California, British Columbia and Amsterdam.[31]
Licensed growing and self-cultivation
Decree 2467 of 2015 set up licences for growing cannabis and holding its seed for medical and scientific use.[4] Decree 613 of 2017 drew the line between psychoactive and non-psychoactive plants at 1 per cent THC by dry weight and gave small and medium growers a chapter of their own.[32] Under Decree 811 of 2021 a natural person may grow up to 20 plants for personal use without a licence.[5] Hemp for fibre and grain, with 0.3 per cent THC or less, has had its own framework since Law 2204 of 2022.[33]
When licensing began there were, in the words of a 2023 study by CESED, no certified cannabis seeds anywhere, and planting permits were granted for seed from the illegal market.[34]: 5 To register seed with the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA), the government created the category of fuente semillera (seed source) and gave a year's amnesty in which the ICA accepted documentation for cannabis seed without asking where it came from; the study's authors presume that almost all the seed registered with the ICA came from illegal crops. The rules gave no different treatment to seed of Colombian origin. The same study found that small farmers who produce and sell criolla or uncertified seed were left without a place in the system.[34]: 5–7 The ICA requires any new variety to pass an agronomic evaluation before it is grown. In November 2018 the financial newspaper Portafolio reported the registration of the first five cultivars of psychoactive cannabis.[35] Most companies multiplied their seed and grew their crops in greenhouses,[36] using feminised seed and taking cuttings from mother plants so that every plant gives the same flower.[34]: 7 In the CESED study the national varieties are held to yield less flower but perhaps to resist local pests better, and no growing standards had been worked out for industrial production with them.[34]: 6 A study of 156 plants grown in different ecological regions of Colombia under the licensing system, published in 2024, found four chemotypes by cannabinoid profile.[37]
Collections
The oldest Colombian cannabis sheet in a published herbarium catalogue was gathered in January 1941 by J. M. Idrobo and is held in the United States National Herbarium (Idrobo 2564).[7] Timothy Plowman collected a plant grown in Boston from seed of Medellín in 1972 (Plowman s.n.),[38] and in 1974 one grown in a greenhouse of the Bogotá botanical garden (Plowman 3767).[39] Partridge's sheets of 1973 from near Aracataca are held in the herbarium of the University of Antioquia.[27] A male plant gathered at Piedras de Amolar, in La Guajira, in 1980 is recorded as cultivated (Fonnegra 1597).[40]
Herbarium sheets of cannabis from Colombia:
Two seed accessions of punto rojo were collected in January 2024 from a population grown near Calarcá, in Quindío (ZOM-COL-QUIN-0120240001 and ZOM-COL-QUIN-0120240002). Seed sellers offer lines under Colombian names, some of them crosses with foreign stock:
| Accession | Name | Classification | Department |
|---|---|---|---|
| CBG-COL-UNK-0120120001 | Colombia Mangobiche 2012 | Unknown | |
| CBG-COL-UNK-0120130001 | Colombia Punto Rojo 2013 | Unknown | |
| CBG-COL-UNK-0120130002 | Punta Rosa 2013 | Hybrid | |
| CBG-COL-UNK-0120140001 | Colombia Mangobiche x Peyote Purple 2014 | Hybrid | |
| HCG-COL-QUIN-0120240001 | 2024 HCG Punto Rojo 'Incense' Reproduction | Landrace | |
| HCG-COL-UNK-0120210001 | 1970 Colombian Gold 2021 | Unknown | |
| HCG-COL-UNK-0120250001 | Colombian Mangobiche 2025 | Unknown | |
| HYP-COL-UNK-0120080001 | Punto Rojo P3 C-Line 2008 | Unknown | |
| HYP-COL-UNK-0120220001 | Colombian Rosé 2022 | Hybrid | |
| HYP-COL-UNK-0120230001 | Colombian Gold Legacy Edition 2023 | Hybrid | |
| HYP-COL-UNK-0120230002 | Oro Negra 2023 | Hybrid | |
| HYP-COL-UNK-0120230003 | Colombian Super Skunk 2023 | Hybrid | |
| PGD-COL-UNK-0120250001 | 1970's Colombian Gold x H.O.D. 2025 | Hybrid | |
| RFM-COL-UNK-0120090001 | Santa Marta Colombian Gold 2009 | Unknown | |
| TLT-COL-CAS-0120190001 | Llanera 2019 | Unknown | Casanare |
| TLT-COL-CAU-0120220001 | Corinto 2022 | Unknown | Cauca |
| TLT-COL-HUI-0120190001 | Mango Biche 2019 | Unknown | Huila |
| TLT-COL-UNK-0120190001 | Punto Rojo 2019 | Unknown | |
| TLT-COL-UNK-0120230001 | Colombistan 2023 | Hybrid | |
| TLT-COL-UNK-0120230002 | Sinalombian 2023 | Hybrid | |
| TLT-COL-UNK-0120240001 | Colombian Gold Highland 2024 | Unknown | |
| TLT-COL-UNK-0120240002 | Colombian Gold Lowland 2024 | Unknown | |
| VIB-COL-UNK-0100000001 | Colombian Santa Marta Gold General Population | Landrace | |
| WOS-COL-UNK-0120160001 | Colombian Gold 2016 | Unknown | |
| ZOM-COL-QUIN-0120240001 | Punto Rojo 'Incense' Selection 2023 | Landrace | Quindío Department |
| ZOM-COL-QUIN-0120240002 | Punto Rojo 'Jaime's' Selection 2023 | Landrace | Quindío Department |
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Patiño, Víctor Manuel (1969). Plantas cultivadas y animales domésticos en América equinoccial (in español). Vol. IV: Plantas introducidas. Cali: Imprenta Departamental.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Sáenz Rovner, Eduardo (2007). "La "prehistoria" de la marihuana en Colombia: consumo y cultivos entre los años 30 y 60" (PDF). Cuadernos de Economía (in español). XXVI (47): 205–222.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Cruz Olivera, Luis Felipe; Pereira Arana, Isabel (November 2021). Laberintos de prohibición y regulación: los grises de la marihuana en Colombia. Colección Dejusticia (in español). Bogotá: Editorial Dejusticia. ISBN 978-958-5597-98-3. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Por el cual se reglamentan los aspectos de que tratan los artículos 3, 5, 6 y 8 de la Ley 30 de 1986(Decreto No. 2467), 22 December 2015, arts. 1 and 3 (Diario Oficial No. 49.734, 22 December 2015).Colombia, Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social.Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Por el cual se sustituye el Título 11 de la Parte 8 del Libro 2 del Decreto 780 de 2016, Único Reglamentario del Sector Salud y Protección Social, en relación con el acceso seguro e informado al uso del cannabis y de la planta de cannabis(Decreto No. 811), 23 July 2021, arts. 2.8.11.1.1, 2.8.11.1.3 (num. 7) and 2.8.11.2.1.2 (par.) (Diario Oficial No. 51.744, 23 July 2021).Colombia, Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social.Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 Britto, Lina (2020). Marijuana Boom: The Rise and Fall of Colombia's First Drug Paradise. Oakland: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-32547-0.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Occurrence 1320983187: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Vanegas Muñoz, Gildardo (2022). Caracterización del narcotráfico en el norte del departamento del Cauca, departamento del Valle del Cauca y Eje Cafetero y sus relaciones con el conflicto armado (1958-2020) (Consultancy report) (in español). Comisión para el Esclarecimiento de la Verdad, la Convivencia y la No Repetición.
- ↑ Comisión para el Esclarecimiento de la Verdad, la Convivencia y la No Repetición (August 2022). Colombia adentro: relatos territoriales sobre el conflicto armado. Valle y norte del Cauca (PDF). Hay futuro si hay verdad: Informe Final, tomo 11, vol. 12 (in español). Bogotá: Comisión de la Verdad. ISBN 978-628-7590-38-0. Retrieved 20 October 2026 – via Biblioteca Hegoa.
- ↑ González Eraso, Judith C. (2021). "«Mariguaneras»: traficantes de marihuana, entre antisociales y trasgresoras, Cali-Valle del Cauca, 1950-1960". In López Jerez, M. (ed.). Ni calladas ni sumisas. Trasgresión femenina en Colombia, siglos XVII-XX (in español). Bogotá: Editorial Uniagustiniana; Asociación Colombiana de Estudios del Caribe (ACOLEC). pp. 397–426.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Viloria de la Hoz, Joaquín (November 1997). Café Caribe: la economía cafetera en la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Report). Documentos de Trabajo sobre Economía Regional (in español). Cartagena: Banco de la República. doi:10.32468/dtseru.1.
- ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 Cervantes Angulo, José (1980). La noche de las luciérnagas (in español). Bogotá: Plaza & Janés.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Betancourt, Darío; García, Martha Luz (1994). Contrabandistas, marimberos y mafiosos: historia social de la mafia colombiana (1965–1992) (in español). Bogotá: TM Editores. ISBN 958-601-481-9.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Arango, Carlos A.; Misas, Martha; López, Enrique (June 2006). "Economía subterránea en Colombia 1976-2003: una medición a partir de la demanda de efectivo". Ensayos sobre Política Económica. 24 (50): 154–211. doi:10.32468/Espe.5004.
- ↑ Observatorio de Drogas de Colombia (2017). Reporte de drogas de Colombia 2017 (PDF) (Report) (in español). Bogotá: Ministerio de Justicia y del Derecho. Retrieved 20 October 2026 – via COPOLAD.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 UNODC; Gobierno de Colombia (July 2017). Monitoreo de territorios afectados por cultivos ilícitos 2016 (PDF) (Report) (in español). Bogotá: UNODC.
{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ "Occurrence 1844921238: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Thoumi, Francisco E. (14 July 2002). "Illegal Drugs in Colombia: from illegal economic boom to social crisis". Semana. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Martínez González, Luis Alejandro (2011). Historia de un conflicto territorial: Estado, para estados, colonos e indígenas en la cuenca del Río Don Diego, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia (Trabajo de grado (Antropología)) (in español). Santa Marta: Universidad del Magdalena. hdl:20.500.14923/184.
- ↑ Ortiz Cassiani, Javier (27 January 2021). "La marihuana de mi infancia". El Malpensante (in español). No. 212. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Viloria de la Hoz, Joaquín (July 2005). Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta: economía de sus recursos naturales (Report). Documentos de Trabajo sobre Economía Regional. Cartagena: Banco de la República. doi:10.32468/dtseru.61.
- ↑ U.S. General Accounting Office (November 1988). Drug Control: U.S.-Supported Efforts in Colombia and Bolivia (PDF) (Report to the Congress). Washington. GAO/NSIAD-89-24. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 Henman, Anthony (2019) [1978]. Mama coca (in español). Translated by Gabriel Iriarte; preface by Wade Davis (8th ed.). Popayán: Editorial Universidad del Cauca. ISBN 978-958-732-345-0.
- ↑ de Quinto, Javier; Arcila, Adriana (January 2004). "Inventario y valoración de los efectos económicos de la producción y venta de drogas ilícitas en Colombia" (PDF). UNISCI Discussion Papers (in español). Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ Florian R., Néstor M.; Parada A., Fabián; Garzón M., William F. (2009). "Estudio del contenido de canabinoides en muestras de marihuana (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivadas en varias regiones de Colombia". Vitae (in español). 16 (2): 237–244. ISSN 0121-4004.
- ↑ Ceballos C., Aníbal S. (1976). Algunos aspectos del cultivo de la marihuana (Cannabis sativa L.) (Tesis de grado (Ingeniero Agrónomo)). Santa Marta: Universidad Tecnológica del Magdalena. hdl:20.500.14923/2103.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Occurrence 931007696: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 931007851: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ "The Colombian connection". Time. 29 January 1979. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Restrepo, David; Cuéllar, Luisa (May 2025). Descifrando el cannabis recreativo: composición y dimensionamiento del sistema productivo de la marihuana desde el suroccidente colombiano (Report). Documento temático 52 (in español). Bogotá: Centro de Estudios sobre Seguridad y Drogas (CESED), Universidad de los Andes. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Andavolu, Krishna (20 September 2013). "Ser el rey es maravilloso". VICE en español (in español). Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Por el cual se reglamenta la Ley 1787 de 2016 y se subroga el Título 11 de la Parte 8 del Libro 2 del Decreto 780 de 2016, en relación con el acceso seguro e informado al uso médico y científico del cannabis(Decreto No. 613), 10 April 2017, art. 1 (Título 11, arts. 2.8.11.1.3, 2.8.11.2.1.2, 2.8.11.2.1.3 and 2.8.11.10.1–2.8.11.10.5).Colombia, Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social.Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Por la cual se crea el marco legal para el uso industrial y científico del cáñamo en Colombia y se dictan otras disposiciones(Ley No. 2204), 10 May 2022, arts. 1 and 2 (Diario Oficial No. 52.030, 10 May 2022).Colombia.Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Zuleta, Pablo; Tocua, Bernardo; Martínez Ferro, Tatiana (2023). Cannabis legal: desafíos de la industria de cannabis para usos médicos y científicos en Colombia (PDF) (Report). Documento Temático 41 (in español). Bogotá: Centro de Estudios sobre Seguridad y Drogas (CESED), Universidad de los Andes. Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ Mendez, Paula (18 November 2018). "Aval a primeras cinco variedades de cannabis en el país". Portafolio (in español). Bogotá. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Suárez L., Viviana (5 September 2019). "El apogeo del oro cannábico legal". El Colombiano (in español). Medellín. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Enríquez, Diego J.; Alonso, Julio C.; Hille, Lucas; Brand, Stefan; Holzgrabe, Ulrike; Vergara, Daniela; Montoya, Guillermo; Ramírez, Yesid A. (2025). "Unveiling Colombia's medicinal Cannabis sativa treasure trove: Phenotypic and Chemotypic diversity in legal cultivation". Phytochemical Analysis. 36 (1): 246–260. doi:10.1002/pca.3436. PMID 39169651.
- ↑ "Cannabis sativa, barcode 00429156". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
- ↑ "Cannabis sativa subsp. indica, barcode 00947318". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 930982053: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2 November 2026.