Eradication
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Eradication is the deliberate destruction of growing cannabis, usually by police or soldiers, by cutting, uprooting, burning or ploughing under the plants or spraying them with herbicide. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 requires a party that prohibits cultivation to destroy illicitly grown plants. The 1988 Convention requires parties to eradicate them.[1]: art. 22(2)[2]: art. 14(2) The targets run from a few plants on a mountainside to hectares of crop and, in some countries, wild and feral stands.
Governments report the results in plants, hectares or tonnes destroyed. These are the reporting body's own counts, of what was destroyed and not of what remained. Growers have answered eradication by moving fields, making them smaller and hiding them. Some have fought back. Feral hemp has outlasted decades of counted destruction in the United States. Published accounts of landrace loss name hybrid seed. Neither the American counts nor those accounts compare a population before and after a campaign.
Treaties and national law
Article 22 of the 1961 Convention obliges a party that prohibits cultivation of the opium poppy or the cannabis plant to seize and destroy plants illicitly grown, "except for small quantities required by the Party for scientific or research purposes".[1]: art. 22(2) Article 28 leaves cultivation exclusively for fibre, seed or horticulture outside the Convention.[1]: art. 28(2) The 1988 Convention names cannabis plants among those each party must eradicate where they are grown illicitly, and adds a limit:
The measures adopted shall respect fundamental human rights and shall take due account of traditional licit uses, where there is historic evidence of such use, as well as the protection of the environment.
[2]: art. 14(2)
The American Controlled Substances Act of 1970 authorised the Attorney General to run eradication programmes against "wild or illicit growth" of plants that yield controlled substances.[3] In Indiana, county weed control boards may set up a programme to control wild marijuana.[4]
Before the 1961 Convention, French Congo and Ottoman Egypt took measures against cannabis ahead of prohibiting it, on the view that drug use reduced the supply and quality of labour.[5]
Methods
Cutting, uprooting and burning
Teams on foot cut or pull the plants, an approach the Organization of American States' reviews call forced manual eradication. Belize banned aerial eradication in January 1995.[6] By 2000 its government neither sprayed nor allowed spraying and destroyed fields by hand after reconnaissance.[7] It reported 144,235 plants destroyed in this way in 2009.[8] Jamaica destroyed about 60 per cent of its marijuana in 1987 by hand and with backpack sprayers, by the State Department's estimate.[9]: 27 Prime Minister Edward Seaga had insisted on manual methods, saying that chemicals might bring serious environmental and political consequences.[10]
Police in Kirivong District, Cambodia, burn the plots they find and break up the ponds and tanks that water them. A provincial summary for 2019 to mid-2021 counted 97 operations, 443 locations burned and 282 reservoirs destroyed.[11] In 2021 alone the district police chief reported 174 locations burned and 107 reservoirs destroyed.[12]
The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) called the manpower needed to destroy plots one of the main difficulties of the American programme.[13]: 3 Lebanese security forces used tractors, bulldozers and armoured vehicles to plough up, flatten or burn crops in the Beqaa Valley.[14] In Balochistan in 2025 officials said drones, satellite mapping and heavy machinery went into clearing 310 acres in Qila Abdullah in two days. Of these, they said, 270 acres were destroyed by hand and 40 had withered from lack of water.[15]
Herbicides
Mexico began spraying cannabis with paraquat from helicopters in late 1975.[16] Glyphosate came into use in Colombia in 1984 and later in South Africa, where police had first sprayed from hand pumps in 1980.[17]: 32[18] Drones have carried herbicide against wild cannabis in Russia and India.[19][20] Tiourebaev and colleagues published in 2001 on the control of ditchweed in Kazakhstan with a fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cannabis.[21]
Helicopters
Helicopters find fields, carry teams and spray. The DEA ran aerial spotter schools for police, National Guard troops and Civil Air Patrol members.[22] A CIA assessment of 1986 judged that American aid "in the form of transport helicopters" would let Jamaican teams cut production further.[10] In Kazakhstan police used national guard helicopters in the Karasora operation of 2023, with 70 sorties over more than 150,000 square kilometres.[23] Aircraft crashed in Indiana, California and Hawaii during the American operations of 1987.[13]: 12
Wild and feral plants
The American programme sorted its counts into outdoor cultivated plants, indoor plants and "ditchweed": scattered, naturally wild plants not normally tended by anyone.[3] Ditchweed is feral hemp. It dominated the totals. In 1987 the states reported 7,432,834 cultivated plants and over 105 million ditchweed plants destroyed, more than 67 million of them in Indiana.[13]: 3 For 1993 the DEA reported 4.33 million cultivated plants and 387.9 million "tended ditchweed" plants. The DEA put the rise down to a change in its reporting rules.[24] Summing the annual reports for 1998 to 2006, Canavan and colleagues reached more than 1.9 billion plants claimed.[25] NORML, a reform group, counted 219 million ditchweed plants among 223 million destroyed in 2005.[26]
Ditchweed has too little THC to be worth anything as a drug, although American officials reported that it was harvested and mixed into higher-grade marijuana.[27][13]: 20
Russian authorities estimated wild cannabis at a million hectares in the early 2000s. In 2001 their law enforcement agencies detected about 5,250 hectares and eradicated 2,111. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) judged that such efforts could not be expected to have much effect on trafficking.[28] The UNODC called the 72 tons destroyed in the Issyk-Kul province of Kyrgyzstan in the first seven months of 2015 "only a small part" of the 550 hectares of wild cannabis there.[29]
Detection
Most countries depend on helicopters and local knowledge to find illegal fields, Houmi and colleagues wrote in 2018.[30] In the mountains of Kirivong, a commune police chief described the search: "We looked for signs in the forest, footprints and traces of people walking on the rocks."[11]
In 1987 the DEA reviewed several aerial sensors and concluded that "trained human observers in the proper aircraft still are the most reliable and cost-effective approach". The same report tested a portable collector that could detect pollen from up to a quarter of a mile, of no use against sinsemilla crops, which shed no pollen.[13]: 18 In Florida v. Riley (1989) a plurality of the United States Supreme Court held that a police officer's naked-eye view of a greenhouse from a helicopter at 400 feet was not a search.[31]
Detecting outdoor cannabis from satellites is technically harder than detecting opium poppy and is rarely tried, partly because of the cost.[32] Houmi and colleagues separated cannabis from surrounding vegetation in hyperspectral images of Morocco, but found that small fields produced many mixed pixels.[30] In Indonesia, Guno and colleagues used satellite images to choose areas and then flew survey drones over them. Of 19 points the drone images marked as suspect, a second drone with a zoom camera confirmed 11.[33] A UNODC mission in Kyrgyzstan tested a hyperspectral camera on a fixed-wing drone. The authors found the drone quicker and cheaper than satellite monitoring.[34]
Agencies describe the same tools in their own campaigns. China's narcotics commission said its campaign of 2016 used satellite remote sensing and drones.[35] Police in North Sumatra credited satellite imagery with finding 150 hectares in Mandailing Natal in 2023.[36] Fiji's police used drones to find and reach remote plantations in 2025.[37] A Sri Lankan police spokesman said in 2024 that the Special Task Force was using them inside Yala National Park.[38]
The DEA reported using thermal imagery against indoor growers in 1993.[24] In Kyllo v. United States (2001) the Supreme Court held that aiming such a device at a home was a search that presumptively needed a warrant.[39] Indoor crops are counted by plant number or weight, with no area.[32]
Police and armed forces
In the United States the National Guard has supported the programme since its start, beginning with Operation Green Harvest in Hawaii in 1977, and worked in 53 states and territories in 1989.[22] Armies elsewhere have worked alone or beside police. Mexico's defence ministry reported that the army destroyed 615.5 hectares of marijuana between 1 January and 9 May 2019.[40] The Lebanese Army said it destroyed about 60 dunums at al-Kanisa near Baalbek in October 2026 and detained 17 workers.[41] Army intelligence and soldiers joined police in a raid at Thanamalwila, Sri Lanka, in December 2024.[42] Indonesian army task forces reported finding 1,347 plants in the forest of Pegunungan Bintang in 2026.[43]
The State Department's narcotics bureau flew its own spray aircraft in Belize, Colombia and Guatemala in the 1980s.[9]: 19 The UNODC supported a Kyrgyz operation in 2015.[29] Booby traps and warning devices were still found at plots in a majority of American states in 1987.[13]: 13
Campaigns by country
Figures are from the body named, in the units it used. Year-by-year pages with maps and dated news items are in the last column.
| Country | Period | Method and agency | A reported figure | Further |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Belize | 1983–1994; since 1995 | Herbicide from aircraft; then forced manual eradication | 144,235 plants in 2009 (OAS review)[8] | Herbicide spraying in Belize |
| Cambodia | Record from 1996 | Police burn plots, mainly in Kirivong | 97 operations, 2019 to mid-2021 (provincial police)[11] | Eradication campaigns in Cambodia, Cannabis eradication in Kirivong |
| China | 2016 | Tianmu-16 campaign, with satellite and drones | 147 mu, 1.39 million plants (national commission)[35] | Eradication campaigns in China |
| Colombia | 1984 onward | Police helicopters, glyphosate | More than 33,000 hectares, 1984–1987 (General Accounting Office)[17]: 32, 34 | Herbicide spraying in Colombia |
| Fiji | 2025 | Police, Operation Sasamaki, nearly 700 personnel | 18.2 tonnes uprooted (police commissioner)[37] | Eradication campaigns in Fiji, Cannabis eradication in Fiji |
| Guatemala | 2007–2009 | Forced manual eradication | 25.85 hectares in 2009 (OAS review)[44] | |
| India | 2016–2017; 2020s | State police campaigns; cannabis also grows wild | 3,441 hectares in 2016, 3,446 in 2017 (UNODC and the Narcotics Control Bureau, through Chouvy)[32] | Tripura eradication campaigns (2026), West Bengal eradication campaigns (2026) |
| Indonesia | 2019 onward | National narcotics agency, police, army | 150 hectares in Mandailing Natal, 2023 (North Sumatra police)[36] | Eradication campaigns in Indonesia |
| Jamaica | 1980s | Hand and backpack sprayers | About 60 per cent of the crop in 1987 (State Department)[9]: 27 | |
| Kazakhstan | 2023 | Police with national guard helicopters | 65 plantations, more than 70,000 plants (police)[23] | |
| Kyrgyzstan | 2015 | Drug service, wild stands, UNODC support | More than 72 tons in Issyk-Kul (UNODC)[29] | |
| Lebanon | 1991–1993; 1990s to 2012; again by 2026 | UN programme; then annual campaigns with heavy vehicles | About 60 dunums at al-Kanisa, 2026 (army)[41] | Lebanese hashish trade |
| Mexico | 1975 onward | Herbicide from aircraft; army cutting | 615.5 hectares, January to May 2019 (defence ministry)[40] | Herbicide spraying in Mexico |
| Morocco | 2005–2016 | Forced eradication by the authorities | 15,160 hectares in 2005; 395 in 2016 (Moroccan figures through UNODC)[45][32] | Cannabis in Morocco |
| Nigeria | 1994 onward | Operation Burn the Weeds, 1994 | Peak in the late 1990s (UNODC)[46]: 6 | Nigeria eradication campaigns (2026) |
| Pakistan | 2025 | Excise department and Anti-Narcotics Force, Balochistan | More than 2,054 acres (department)[15] | |
| Philippines | To 2026 | Police, Kalinga | 20 operations, 159,100 plants in Tinglayan (Kalinga police)[47] | Eradication campaigns in the Philippines |
| Russia | Annual | Police, Operation Mak; wild stands | Almost 28,000 plantations in Primorsky Krai, 2026 (press)[19] | |
| South Africa | 1980–2016 | Police, hand pumps then helicopters | The spraying of Mpondoland stopped in 2016[48] | Herbicide spraying in South Africa |
| Sri Lanka | 2023 onward | Police, army and Special Task Force under Yukthiya | 2.92 million plants in the first month (police)[49] | Eradication campaigns in Sri Lanka |
| Thailand | 1980s | Border Patrol and Provincial Police, by hand, with American funds[50][51]: 11 | 2,400 hectares in 1985, more than 3,000 in 1986 (Thai government)[52]: 20 | |
| Turkey | 2025 | Operation at Lice, with helicopters, drones and remote sensing | 12,389,000 plants (official statement)[53] | Lice |
| United States | 1979 onward | DEA with state and local police and the National Guard | 7,432,834 cultivated plants in 1987 (DEA)[13]: 3 | Herbicide spraying in the United States |
Reported figures
The Justice Department's inspector general found in 1995 that six of ten audited states had reported work by agencies outside the DEA programme, so that national statistics "may be overstated".[3] The General Accounting Office found that American officials did very little to check the daily figures Colombian police gave for spraying.[17]: 34 The historian Lina Britto called the figures for seizures, fumigated area and arrests in Colombia "an element of political football" on which American aid depended.[54]: 171
In 2005 the Moroccan authorities reported 12,000 hectares eradicated in Larache province, where the UNODC survey had found 3,917 hectares before eradication; the UNODC said it had not verified the Moroccan data.[45] Reported eradication later fell from 5,000 hectares in 2013 to 395 in 2016 while the reported cultivated area stayed near 47,000. Chouvy called those areas "surprisingly stable" and unrepresentative of the state's efforts.[32]
Chouvy also quotes researchers at the UNODC: "most countries provide estimates based on some extrapolations from their cannabis eradication activities". Estimates of how much cannabis is grown therefore lean on the same figures.[32]
Effects on growers
Colombian spray pilots reported that the average field fell from about 1.3 hectares to about 0.4 by 1986. Net cultivation rose by more than 150 per cent from 1985 to 1987 as new planting outpaced spraying.[17]: 32 In southern Cambodia an anti-drug chief described the same cycle: "When we crack down on marijuana plants in the west, growers secretly plant them in the east".[55] After the DEA's Operation Wipeout in Hawaii in 1990, growers went indoors and the price rose from $2,500 to $6,000 a pound.[56] Other responses to spraying, from hiding plants among food crops to bribing pilots, are listed at Herbicide spraying of cannabis#Effects on growing.
Colombian growers took the American market as Mexican supply fell after 1977, reaching 79 per cent in 1981.[17]: 30 Chouvy counts the American-backed spraying of Mexican fields among the changes that favoured growing cannabis in North America.[32] By DEA figures, American-grown marijuana rose from 10 per cent of consumption in 1980 to about 25 per cent in 1992, "despite the efforts of the Program".[3]
Bloomer's study of Lesotho found cannabis income important to rural households and concluded that policy should treat growing as a question of livelihood, or smallholders would be further marginalised by drug control.[57] In San Marcos, Guatemala, residents opposed or confronted the authorities at each eradication because, in their eyes, it ended their source of work; the authorities put pay on illegal crops at about Q26 a day against Q10 to Q15 for women and children on legal ones.[58] Beqaa farmers said in 2014 that a minister's promises of compensation and other income had not been honoured.[14] Chouvy and Afsahi wrote that the few alternative development projects in the Rif had not reduced cultivation.[45] The Philippine Dangerous Drugs Board has asked for infrastructure for three municipalities named as alternative development sites after eradication.[59]
Farmers blocked roads in the Beqaa around 2012 when security forces began burning cannabis. The government backed down. The head of the drug unit said that yearly eradication had run from the 1990s until 2012, when instability in Syria halted it.[14] Chouvy and Afsahi wrote that Moroccan forced eradication stopped in 2011, partly in response to the Arab Spring and the demonstrations at Bab Berred in 2010.[45] Chouvy later listed eradicated areas for 2013 to 2016.[32] An army unit eradicating marijuana in Petén, Guatemala, was attacked with stones and gunfire in 2021, reportedly by villagers.[60] The Indonesian government attributed the violence of 1990 in Aceh to its effort against marijuana and the lost income of a ganja "mafia", Asia Watch reported.[61]
In 2018 the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recommended that South Africa suspend aerial spraying in Mpondoland.[62] Complaints of sickness and crop loss from spraying are set out at Herbicide spraying of cannabis#Health and the environment, and the criticism of arrests under Sri Lanka's operation at Yukthiya (eradication campaign)#Criticism.
Effects on plant populations
More than 1.9 billion feral plants were claimed destroyed in the United States from 1998 to 2006, and feral populations are still present. Canavan and colleagues point to high seed production, establishment on disturbed ground and the intensive management that removal needs.[25] Aina and colleagues collected feral plants across the United States and found them genetically distinct from other C. sativa and divided into regional clusters.[63] The populations survived. Neither study measures how much diversity they held before eradication or what share of any population was destroyed.
Philippine police said in 2022 that they sprayed overrun sites in Maguindanao so that fallen seed would not grow.[64] Eradication reports count plants destroyed and do not say how many plants had already set seed or whether the next crop came from saved or bought seed. Those are the facts that bear on effective population size and on genetic contamination.
McPartland and Small hold that Central and South Asian landraces "face extinction through introgressive hybridization".[65] Chouvy writes that landraces in the Global South are increasingly at risk of replacement by modern commercial hybrids.[32] Afsahi and Darwich wrote that enforced eradication limited cultivation "for a short time but not in any sustainable way", naming the resumption of growing in Lebanon and the replacement of the local variety by hybrids in Morocco.[66] On the Rif, Chouvy and Afsahi wrote that it is "not clear what role forced eradication might have played" in the turn to hybrids, because it mostly took place outside the historic growing zone: most of the hectares reported in 2005 were in Larache, and Al Hoceima Province was spared.[45] Their statement concerns one campaign in one region; the general question belongs to genetic erosion.
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the 1972 Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 30 September 2026 – via United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 15 October 2026 – via United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Office of the Inspector General, U.S. Department of Justice (April 1995). The Drug Enforcement Administration's Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (Report). Audit Report 95-20. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ Nice, Glenn (24 March 2010). "Noxious and Invasive Weeds and the Weed Laws in Indiana" (PDF). Purdue Extension Weed Science, Purdue University. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ Duvall, Chris S. (2019). "A brief agricultural history of cannabis in Africa, from prehistory to canna-colony". EchoGéo (48). doi:10.4000/echogeo.17599.
- ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (April 1995). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 30 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
- ↑ Drug Enforcement Administration (March 2000). Country brief: Belize (Report). Drug Intelligence Brief. United States Department of Justice. DEA-20006. Retrieved 31 October 2026 – via National Archives web harvest.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission, Multilateral Evaluation Mechanism Governmental Expert Group. Belize: evaluation of progress in drug control 2007–2009 (Report). Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States. OEA/Ser.L/XIV.2.48, CICAD/doc.1843/10. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Bureau of International Narcotics Matters (1 March 1988). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Global Issues (July 1986). Jamaica: Progress in Marijuana Control (Intelligence assessment). Central Intelligence Agency. GI 86-10051. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 "Hunt on for Takeo marijuana growers". The Phnom Penh Post. 1 June 2021.
- ↑ "Takeo police chief vows war on weed". Khmer Times. 27 December 2021.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 Drug Enforcement Administration, Cannabis Investigations Section (December 1987). 1987 Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (PDF) (Report). Washington: U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 114531. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Lebanon's cannabis farms flourish while army looks away". Agweek. Reuters. 20 May 2014.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Balochistan Intensifies Drive Against Illegal Cannabis Cultivation". Balochistan Pulse. 4 November 2025. Retrieved 22 October 2026.
- ↑ Turner, Carlton E.; Cheng, Ping C.; Torres, Lolita M.; ElSohly, Mahmoud A. (1978). "Detection and analysis of paraquat in confiscated marijuana samples". Bulletin on Narcotics. 30 (4): 47–56. PMID 258606.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 U.S. General Accounting Office (November 1988). Drug Control: U.S.-Supported Efforts in Colombia and Bolivia (PDF) (Report to the Congress). Washington. GAO/NSIAD-89-24. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ de Greef, K. (7 April 2016). "Cash crops poisoned in Pondoland". GroundUp.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Кузнецов, Д. (20 July 2026). "Почти 28 тысяч наркоплантаций уничтожили в Приморье во время операции Мак-2026". PrimaMedia (in русский). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ Chetry, Prem (21 December 2024). "Wild cannabis destroyed". The Arunachal Times. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ Tiourebaev, K.S.; Semenchenko, G.V.; Dolgovskaya, M.; McCarthy, M.K.; Anderson, T.W.; Carsten, L.D.; Pilgeram, A.L.; Sands, D.C. (2001). "Biological control of infestations of ditchweed (Cannabis sativa) with Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cannabis in Kazakhstan". Biocontrol Science and Technology. 11 (4): 535–540. doi:10.1080/09583150120067562.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Drug Enforcement Administration, Cannabis Investigations Section. 1989 Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (PDF) (Report). Washington: U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 126492. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Рахимова, А. (9 October 2023). "За наркодилерами в Казахстане следят из космоса". NewTimes.kz (in русский). Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program, 1993". National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Office of Justice Programs. NCJ 152429. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ NORML (7 September 2006). "98 percent of all domestically eradicated marijuana is "ditchweed," DEA admits". NORML. Retrieved 6 November 2026.
- ↑ National Drug Intelligence Center (July 2003). "Marijuana". Nebraska Drug Threat Assessment (Report). U.S. Department of Justice. Product No. 2003-S0389NE-001. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2003). Country profile: Russian Federation (PDF) (Report). p. 12.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Regional Office for Central Asia (2015). "UNODC supports the eradication of wild cannabis in Kyrgyzstan". UNODC. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Houmi, M.; Mohamadi, B.; Balz, T. (2018). "A hyperspectral based method to detect cannabis plantation in inaccessible areas". The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. XLII-3: 547–551. doi:10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-3-547-2018.
- ↑ Florida v. Riley 488 U.S. 445. U.S. Supreme Court (23 January 1989). Retrieved 6 November 2026.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32.7 32.8 Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2019). "Cannabis cultivation in the world: heritages, trends and challenges". EchoGéo. 48. doi:10.4000/echogeo.17591.
- ↑ Guno, Yomi; Rezaldi, Muhammad Yudhi; Triputra, Fadjar Rahino; et al. (June 2024). "Images processing of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for cannabis identification". Traitement du Signal. 41 (3): 1473–1483. doi:10.18280/ts.410335.
- ↑ Mikhaylov, D.; Thangavelloo, D.R.; Zolotykh, N.; Seleznev, A. (2025). "UAV mounted spectrometry camera solution for detecting illicit cannabis and ephedra plantations". Discover Applied Sciences. 7 (10) 1197. doi:10.1007/s42452-025-07693-9.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 "2016年中国毒品形势报告" [2016 China Drug Situation Report]. 中国禁毒网 (in 中文). 27 March 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Perburuan ratusan hektare ladang ganja di Madina gunakan teknologi citra satelit". Antara News Sumatera Utara (in Bahasa Indonesia). Antara. 13 November 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2026.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Korobiau, S. (26 February 2026). "$241m marijuana seized in nine-month Police crackdown". Fiji Sun.
- ↑ Warakapitiya, K. (25 February 2024). "Parts of Yala at risk from illicit ganja growers, poachers, and bushmeat trade". The Sunday Times. Colombo.
- ↑ Kyllo v. United States 533 U.S. 27. U.S. Supreme Court (11 June 2001). Retrieved 6 November 2026.
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 MND Staff (26 August 2019). "Marijuana plantations destroyed by military down 70% in five years". Mexico News Daily. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 "الجيش يتلف حوالي 60 دنمًا من حشيشة الكيف المزروعة في بلدة الكنيسة – بعلبك ويوقف 17 عاملًا فيها" [The army destroys about 60 dunums of cannabis planted in the town of al-Kanisa, Baalbek, and detains 17 workers there] (Press release) (in العربية). Lebanese Army Command, Directorate of Orientation. 10 October 2026. Retrieved 18 October 2026.
- ↑ "Army Assists Police in Major Cannabis Eradication Operation in Thanamalwila". LankaXpress. 13 December 2024.
- ↑ Nara, Marselinus (8 September 2026). "TNI temukan 1.347 batang ganja di hutan Pegunungan Bintang". Antara News (in Bahasa Indonesia). Antara. Retrieved 17 October 2026.
- ↑ Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission. Guatemala: Evaluation of Progress in Drug Control 2007–2009 (Report). Multilateral Evaluation Mechanism, Fifth Evaluation Round. Organization of American States. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud; Afsahi, Kenza (2014). "Hashish revival in Morocco". International Journal of Drug Policy. 25 (3): 416–423. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.01.001.
- ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2007). Cannabis in Africa: an overview (Report). UNODC.
- ↑ Asurin, R.G. (9 January 2026). "Kalinga police reports success in anti-crime, drug eradication operations". Philippine Information Agency. Retrieved 4 October 2026.
- ↑ Nowicki, L. (29 July 2024). "Mpondoland dagga growers left out to dry". GroundUp.
- ↑ Jayawardana, S. (21 January 2024). "One month into 'Yukthiya', authorities hail it as a success". The Sunday Times. Colombo.
- ↑ Edwin Meese III (18 March 1986). Address of the Honorable Edwin Meese III, Attorney General of the United States, before East Asia Pacific Narcotics Coordinators Conference (PDF) (Speech). Bangkok: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ U.S. General Accounting Office (February 1988). Drug Control: U.S. Supported Efforts in Burma, Pakistan, and Thailand (PDF) (Report). Washington. GAO/NSIAD-88-94. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (June 1987). The NNICC Report 1985–1986: The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States from Foreign and Domestic Sources in 1985 and 1986 (with Near Term Projections) (PDF) (Report) – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
- ↑ "Diyarbakır'da 12,3 milyon kök kenevir ve skunk ele geçirildi; 22 tutuklama" [12.3 million cannabis and skunk plants seized in Diyarbakır; 22 arrests]. Demirören Haber Ajansı (in Türkçe). 14 June 2025. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ Britto, Lina (2010). "A Trafficker's Paradise: The "War On Drugs" and the New Cold War in Colombia". Contemporánea: Historia y problemas del siglo XX. 1 (1): 159–177. ISSN 1688-7638.
- ↑ "Police destroy five marijuana farms in Takeo province". The Phnom Penh Post. 12 August 2021.
- ↑ Mendel, William W. (December 1992). "Counterdrug strategy – illusive victory: from Blast Furnace to Green Sweep". Military Review: 74–87.
- ↑ Bloomer, J. (2009). "Using a political ecology framework to examine extra-legal livelihood strategies: a Lesotho-based case study of cultivation of and trade in cannabis". Journal of Political Ecology. 16 (1): 49–69. doi:10.2458/v16i1.21691.
- ↑ Redacción La Hora (29 February 2016). "San Marcos: cuando la marihuana y la amapola ofrecen más recursos a mujeres y niños". La Hora (in español). Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Dangerous Drugs Board (2026). Board Resolution No. 5, Series of 2026: A Resolution Requesting for the Support of the Regional Development Council Cordillera Administrative Region for the Infrastructure Requirements of the Municipalities of Kibungan, Kapangan, and Bakun as Alternative Development Sites Following Successful Marijuana Eradication Activities (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ Román, Julio (17 March 2021). "Atacan a balazos a unidad del Ejército que efectuaba tareas de erradicación de marihuana en Petén". Prensa Libre (in español). Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Asia Watch (27 December 1990). Indonesia: Human Rights Abuses in Aceh (PDF) (Report). News from Asia Watch. New York: Human Rights Watch.
- ↑ UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (29 November 2018). Concluding observations on the initial report of South Africa (E/C.12/ZAF/CO/1) (Report). United Nations. paras. 68–69.
- ↑ Aina, Ademola; Wenger, Jonathan P.; Stanton, Eliot; Majumdar, Chandrani Gon; ElSohly, Mahmoud; Weiblen, George D.; Ellison, Shelby (1 July 2025). "Genetic diversity, population structure, and cannabinoid variation in feral Cannabis sativa germplasm from the United States". Scientific Reports. 15 (1) 20423. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-07912-8. PMC 12215616.
- ↑ "PNP-DEG turns over to herbicides to destroy marijuana fields in PH". Journal News Online. 19 September 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144: 81–112. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
- ↑ Afsahi, Kenza; Darwich, Salem (May 2016). "Hashish in Morocco and Lebanon: A comparative study". International Journal of Drug Policy. 31: 190–198. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.02.024. PMID 27178873.