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Aceh

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Aceh
Province
General
Coordinates4.40, 96.90
CountryIndonesia
RegionSumatra
Administration
CapitalBanda Aceh
Regencies and cities0
Cannabis documentation
⛶
Growing regions1
Growing areas2
Appellations0
Accessions0
Eradication campaigns2
News items10
Research items1

Aceh is a province of Indonesia at the northern end of the island of Sumatra, with its capital at Banda Aceh. The Bukit Barisan range runs the length of the province. Its uplands hold the sites named in cannabis eradication reporting and belong to the Northern Sumatra growing region. The south-eastern uplands fall inside Gunung Leuser National Park.

Ganja appears in the Acehnese materia medica recorded by Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje during fieldwork in 1891 and 1892.[1] The colonial survey that followed the 1912 Hague opium conference confirmed true Cannabis in Aceh and its dependencies, where it could not confirm it in most of Java.[2] The Governor of Aceh and Dependencies prohibited cannabis by provincial ordinance in 1924, three years before the Netherlands Indies adopted a national narcotics decree.[3][4] Cultivation continued through the armed conflict between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement and through the eradication campaigns that followed the 2005 peace settlement. The Badan Narkotika Nasional frames its alternative-development programme for the province around stopping cannabis from Aceh reaching the rest of the country.[5]

Geography

The province runs from the Malacca Strait coast in the north-east across the Bukit Barisan uplands to the Indian Ocean in the south-west. Cannabis sites lie across a wide elevation band within that upland spine. In Aceh Besar the national narcotics agency has destroyed fields from 172 metres at Mesalee in Indrapuri and 224 metres at Maheng in Kuta Cot Glie up to 1,300 metres at Desa Pulo in Seulimeum.[6][7] In the southern highlands a November 2025 operation covered 51.75 hectares inside the national park's protected forest in Gayo Lues.[8]


Administrative subdivisions

Regencies and cities documented on the wiki:

No subdivisions documented yet.

Cannabis has been reported from Aceh Besar, North Aceh, Bireuen, Gayo Lues, Pidie, Pidie Jaya, Central Aceh, Bener Meriah, East Aceh, Nagan Raya and the city of Lhokseumawe.[9][10][11][8][12]

Demographics

Stub
This section is incomplete. Add sources and expand it.

Communities with cannabis relationships

Snouck Hurgronje, writing from fieldwork in Aceh in 1891 and 1892, placed ganja in the Acehnese medical repertoire: it was smoked to stimulate the appetite, one of several narcotics taken for particular purposes. His Acehnese glossary includes ganja and glosses it "hashish".[1]

Willem Boorsma, reporting the survey commissioned after the 1912 Hague conference, was told that the Acehnese smoked cannabis chiefly to stimulate the appetite. He noted that it was not reputed to be a strong narcotic and smoked Acehnese flowering tops himself without any effect. His summary conclusion held that across Aceh and the two Sumatran coasts cannabis was cultivated and used "primarily by foreigners, very little by the indigenous population". He named Klingalese Tamil labourers and traders, Bengalis and Arabs. He attributed the preparation madjoen to Klingalese makers and called the word a general name for supposed aphrodisiacs.[2] Boorsma's summary is a colonial administrative characterisation of an ethnically stratified population, in the vocabulary of its period.

Agriculture

Stub
This section is incomplete. Add sources and expand it.

The crops the alternative-development programme proposes in place of cannabis are coffee, vegetables and other commercial produce.[5][13] A newspaper account of the 1912 colonial enquiry quoted an 1883 botanical handbook to the effect that on Sumatra hemp was grown only for its leaves, which were mixed with tobacco for smoking.[14]

Cannabis in Aceh

History

Before regulation. Snouck Hurgronje's ethnography, from fieldwork in 1891 and 1892 and published in Dutch in 1893 and 1894, lists ganja smoking among the narcotics used for specific purposes, alongside opium taken by mouth.[1] After the 1912 Hague opium conference the head of the opium administration sent a circular to regional administrators asking them to investigate the use of Indian hemp. A contemporary newspaper account of that circular reported that no trade in a cannabis preparation had come to light anywhere in the Netherlands Indies and that the literature established only that the leaves were mixed with tobacco.[14] The resulting survey by Boorsma, head of the pharmacological laboratory, found that most plants called gendji or gandja across Java and parts of Sumatra were other species. He confirmed true Cannabis in three places only: Salatiga; the west and east Sumatran coasts; and Aceh with its dependencies.[2] His report for 1915, printed in the agriculture department's yearbook in 1917, states that plant material from Aceh had been identified as Cannabis indica[15]: 23 and that the plant occurred in most of the province's divisions, with plantings in a few of them.[15]: 25

On the strength of the survey the colonial government decided that no measures against growing or using the plant were yet needed, but that the matter should be watched and the heads of the provinces where the plant had been found should report on it every year.[16] The returns for 1915 reported that planting in Aceh had fallen off sharply and was still declining. The plant was grown here and there on a very small scale, in house yards and on ladang (dry fields), mainly in the divisions of Groot-Atjeh and the North Coast of Aceh. It was also found here and there on the west coast, but not in Langsa. The returns said that the Acehnese used the dried leaves and flower buds now and then to stimulate the appetite but seldom or never to excess. They called the main users Klingalese and Bengalis.[16] Aceh's annual report, summarised in the opium administration's report for 1917, repeated these observations on the authority of the agricultural adviser stationed in the province. It judged action against the planting unnecessary and undesirable, since it might lead to hidden plantings in remote areas that were hard to control.[17]

The 1924 provincial ordinance. Aceh prohibited cannabis three years before the Netherlands Indies did. De Sumatra Post reported on 26 November 1924 that the Governor of Aceh and Dependencies had promulgated an ordinance in the Javasche Courant. Its first article forbade anyone to plant gandja, to own or hold a stock of it, to transport it or to offer it for sale. A second article extended the prohibition to the self-governing territories and their subjects. A third set the penalty at a fine of up to 100 guilders or up to three months' detention. It also allowed the cannabis involved to be declared forfeit.[3] Putri and Blickman count the ordinance among several provincial or local measures that preceded the national decree.[4] The paper called the penalty severe. It set it beside the opium administration's report that testing at Buitenzorg had found no narcotic constituents in the sampled plant, part of an enquiry, opened after bhang came to notice in the Straits Settlements in 1922, into whether the drug was also known locally as a narcotic. It put the point to a Dr de Jong of the experiment station. He answered that the Buitenzorg finding probably rested on a mistake, since hemp was generally known to contain narcotic constituents.[3] The national Verdoovende Middelen Ordonnantie followed in 1927.[4] Reporting the discovery of about 250 plants in a garden at Siantar, on the East Coast of Sumatra, De Sumatra Post wrote in July 1934 that much gandja had formerly been grown in Deli and Aceh. About five years earlier, it said, the growers had been ordered to pull up their plants.[18]

The conflict decades. Cultivation continued through the armed conflict between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement, from 1976 to the Helsinki settlement of 2005. Kirsten Schulze wrote in 2004 that the movement had been actively involved in the cultivation and trade of cannabis and that "an estimated 30 percent of all of Southeast Asia's marijuana is believed to originate in Aceh". She held the movement's own share of that trade difficult to guess, given the number of other participants, from members of the army and police to criminal syndicates in Medan. In her account the largest share was sold inside Indonesia, mainly elsewhere in Sumatra and on Java. Cannabis was also traded for weapons.[19]: 27–28

Damien Kingsbury and Lesley McCulloch, writing on the Indonesian military's commercial activity in the province, place the armed forces in both the cultivation and the trade. They describe security forces encouraging local people to grow and harvest the crop for what they characterise as a predominantly military market, paying far below market value, so that most of the profit accrued to the armed forces while the farmers lived in poverty and fear.[20]: 213 They describe three incidents. In early 2001 the air force arrested a police helicopter pilot who had flown 40 kilograms out of Aceh and said it belonged to the Aceh Besar police chief. In September 2002 police stopped an army truck near Binjai in North Sumatra with 1,350 kilograms aboard; soldiers then attacked the Binjai police post in a nine-hour exchange that killed six police officers, one soldier and one bystander. In late November 2002 a seizure of 675 kilograms reached the provincial police in Banda Aceh. A senior officer said it came from Pulau Aceh, where the military supervised its cultivation.[20]: 213–214 They judged the military less involved in the drug economy than it had been, though still significantly.[20]: 213

Post-conflict eradication. The settlement was followed by the Nila Rencong operations of 2006 and 2007, run in Aceh with the provincial narcotics board and the provincial police. Alternative-development projects followed, assisted by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the Mae Fah Luang Foundation.[4] The Grand Design of Alternative Development began in 2016.[5] From 2023 the narcotics agency located fields by aerial survey.[7]

Cultivation

Eradication reporting describes plots in upland forest and on forest-edge land, dispersed across several regencies.

Two clusters recur. At Desa Pulo in Seulimeum, Aceh Besar, the national narcotics agency has destroyed cannabis repeatedly since 2023. The October 2023 operation covered one hectare at 1,300 metres and destroyed about 15,000 plants weighing 7.5 tonnes, standing between 20 and 350 centimetres and spaced at about 50 centimetres.[7] In August 2024 the agency destroyed about 10,000 plants on two hectares: one at Lamlung in Indrapuri and one at Lampanah in Seulimeum.[21] An April 2025 operation covered roughly three hectares at two further Aceh Besar sites: about 15,000 plants over two hectares at Maheng in Kuta Cot Glie and about 9,500 over one hectare at Mesalee in Indrapuri, with a combined wet weight of about 12 tonnes.[6] A September 2025 operation returned to Desa Pulo for 1.3 hectares and about 3,500 plants. It added 0.7 hectares and about 1,500 plants at Desa Ie Seum in Masjid Raya, for about 5,000 plants and 2.3 tonnes in total.[22] In April 2026 the provincial police reported about 20 hectares at several points. They destroyed three hectares of it at Lampanah in Seulimeum under Operasi Antik Seulawah 2026 and estimated the whole find at a 50-tonne harvest.[13] Two more Seulimeum fields followed in September 2026. On 15 September the Aceh Besar police destroyed about 3,500 plants on about one hectare in the hills of Desa Pulo, reached on foot after about five kilometres.[23] On 17 September the army's regional intelligence detachment reported burning about 3,500 plants on 1.5 hectares in the mountains of Desa Lambada.[24]

The second cluster is in Gayo Lues. In November 2025 the narcotics crime directorate of Bareskrim Polri located 51.75 hectares across 26 sites in the kecamatan of Blangkejeren, Putri Betung and Pining, inside the Gunung Leuser protected forest. The search took two days. The teams had to pass six posts, a suspension bridge and two rivers to reach the fields. Police described the harvest route: dried and sacked cannabis was cached in scrub beside a river and floated downstream when an order came.[8] In September 2026 the Gayo Lues police reached plots in the mountains around Desa Ekan and Desa Pepelah in Pining after about ten hours on foot. They put the plots at an estimated 26.5 hectares carrying an estimated 53,000 plants, and burned them on site.[25] A third site group was destroyed at Teupin Reusep in Sawang, North Aceh, in August 2026, where a joint operation covered about four hectares across nine points and found plants of about two months' growth standing one to two metres.[12]

Chemistry

Laboratory surveys of seized Acehnese material find Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol to be the dominant cannabinoid in every sample.

Siahaan, Marpaung and Tamrin analysed material held by five Aceh police commands in 2019, covering Pidie, Lhokseumawe, East Aceh at Idi Rayeuk, Bener Meriah and Central Aceh at Takengon, by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Δ9-THC and cannabichromene were present in all five samples and cannabinol in four. The study's figures are relative gas-chromatographic peak areas ("Content (Area %)").[10] Supiyani, Salsabil, Mumtazah and Syakira analysed five further samples in 2025, one each from Aceh Besar, Central Aceh, Bireuen, Lhokseumawe and Pidie Jaya, using microscopy, Raman spectroscopy and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry. They quantified ten cannabinoids and reported Δ9-THC values from 28.90 per cent for Central Aceh to 57.48 per cent for Aceh Besar, attributing the spread to growing environment.[9]

Preparations and consumption

The colonial sources describe smoking a mixture of cannabis leaf and tobacco. The opium administration reported that the mixture was smoked fairly often in East Aceh. The same report found it in the Palembang residency, where people with chest complaints smoked it.[3] The 1912 circular reported that the literature established only the leaf-with-tobacco mixture for the Netherlands Indies.[14] Boorsma distinguished three smoking wrappers: nipah palm leaf was the mildest, maize leaf stronger and banana leaf previously used to cook glutinous rice the strongest. He reported a claim about the last that he himself doubted.[2]

The 1924 opium report said Klingalese and Bengali residents took the plant in soup as an aperitif.[3] The Transnational Institute's 2016 briefing reports local accounts of cannabis in Aceh used in cooking and mixed with coffee.[4]

Religious and cultural use

Boorsma reported that the Acehnese accompanied the transplanting of cannabis seedlings with loud ceremony, held to increase the potency of the crop. He also described a preparation sequence in which the leaves were dried, soaked, dried again and finely cut before smoking.[2]

Trade and commerce

Aceh-grown cannabis moves south through North Sumatra towards Medan and onward markets. The Aceh report summarised in the opium administration's report for 1917 recalled an export trade some 20 years old: before Penang closed to imports of gandja, fairly large quantities were shipped there from Lhokseumawe. In the report's terms, the buyers and users in Penang were Klingalese and Bengalis.[17]

A report on opium use in Aceh in 1934, published in the Deli Courant in January 1935 from figures supplied by the opium administration, closed by stating that nothing had been heard of anyone planting or possessing Indian hemp or other narcotic plants.[26] A few days later the same paper reported that police at Tanjung Pura, in Langkat, had stopped a passenger car from Langsa and found two tins of Indian hemp inside. A report was drawn up against the man carrying them. The driver, whose car was a taxi, said he had seen the tins but had no idea what they held.[27] De Sumatra Post reported in August 1935 on the prosecution of a coffee stall on Medan's Spoorstraat for selling gandja. The report said the main customers were drivers and the cannabis was thought to come from Aceh, where it was grown, with the drivers said to be bringing it in.[28] When the stallholder came to trial in December, an officer of the opium investigation service testified that the gandja sold in Medan was mostly brought in from the Karo plateau and from Aceh. The court fined the stallholder 50 guilders. He had been convicted of selling gandja once before.[29] In March 1939 a man found with about four kilograms of dried leaves told the court that he had received them from an Acehnese to sell. Reporting the case, De Sumatra Post put the clandestine market price at two guilders a kati. It reasoned that much gandja seemed to be grown in Aceh, since the leaves offered for sale were mostly smuggled in from there to Sumatra's East Coast. The man was fined 50 guilders, with 50 days' detention in default.[30] In July 1941 the paper recalled a lively trade some time earlier in dried leaves, most of them from Aceh.[31]

The Gayo Lues fields of November 2025 were found by working back from the arrest in Deli Serdang, North Sumatra, of two men carrying about 47 kilograms, who said their supplier was in Blangkejeren.[8] Cannabis also moves within the province. A provincial police stop in February 2026 at Kuta Blang in Bireuen recovered about 50 kilograms from a vehicle. The driver, a farmer from Central Aceh, said the consignment had come from Beutong Ateuh in Nagan Raya on the west coast and was bound for Geudong in North Aceh.[11] In July 1999 the military killed the ulama Tgk. Bantaqiah and 56 of his followers at his boarding school in Beutong Ateuh. Rodd McGibbon writes that the military claimed Bantaqiah was involved in cultivating cannabis and suspected him of links to the Free Aceh Movement, claims that have never been independently verified. The attempt to prosecute the soldiers responsible was undermined when the main witness and a defendant disappeared.[32]: 336, 354

Main article: Indonesia

Cannabis is a Golongan I narcotic under Law 35 of 2009. In its 2023 and 2025 Aceh releases the narcotics agency cited Article 111(2) for the prohibition on planting, keeping, storing, controlling or supplying it.[7][22] The 2025 release also cited Article 92 for the duty to destroy narcotic plants found in Indonesian territory.[22] Since 2 January 2026 the penalties have been set by the new Criminal Code, Law No. 1 of 2023, and Law No. 1 of 2026 on Criminal Penalty Adjustment. Cultivation remains an offence under Article 111, which now has no minimum term.[33] Seized material is destroyed at the close of proceedings: the Bireuen district prosecutor's office destroyed 155.49 kilograms of cannabis from five concluded cases in August 2026, together with other forfeited evidence from cases settled between March and July.[34]

The province's own narcotics regulation, Qanun Aceh No. 8 of 2018 on facilitating the prevention of narcotics abuse, was enacted on 31 December 2018. It sets out the Aceh government's duties in prevention, treatment and rehabilitation, and provides for community participation, financing, sanctions and awards.[35]

On 30 January 2020 Rafli Kande, a Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) member of the national House of Representatives from Aceh, proposed at a working meeting of the House's Commission VI with the trade minister, Agus Suparmanto, that cannabis be made an export commodity.[36][37] He said that cannabis grew well in Aceh, that its benefits, pharmaceutical among them, were proven, and that the danger of cannabis was a "global conspiracy".[37] The narcotics agency rejected the proposal on 2 February. Its deputy for eradication, Arman Depari, said that Law 35 of 2009 placed the cannabis plant in Golongan I and prohibited it, from the seed to processed products, for any purpose.[38] On 5 February Vice-President Ma'ruf Amin said that the government could not legalise the export of cannabis, since it could not export something others were prohibited from using, and that the PKS leadership in the House had withdrawn Rafli's proposal and reprimanded him. He said that claims of medical use should first be studied by the Ministry of Health.[39]

On 1 July 2022 the chair of the Ulama Consultative Council of Aceh (Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama, MPU), Tgk. H. Faisal Ali, said that the council supported legalising cannabis for medical use and scientific research. He cited a 1993 fatwa of MUI Aceh, the provincial body of the Indonesian Ulama Council, which held it haram to use narcotics such as cannabis and to grow, sell or transport them, and which in his account allowed their use only in an emergency under Islamic law or for medicine. He said that the MPU would wait for a fatwa from the national council.[40] On 4 October 2022 M. Rizal Falevi Kirani, chair of Commission V of the Aceh House of Representatives, said that a draft qanun legalising medical cannabis, put forward on the commission's own initiative, had been proposed as a priority in the provincial legislative programme for 2023. He said that the provincial house was guided by Health Minister Regulation No. 16 of 2022 while it awaited a revision of the national narcotics law.[41]

Alternative development

The narcotics agency runs a livelihood-substitution programme in Aceh under the title Grand Design of Alternative Development. Its published plan spans 2016 to 2025 in three periods: building trust from 2016 to 2018, implementing programmes from 2019 to 2024 and developing agrotourism in 2025. Its model is Doi Tung in Thailand. Its three pilot regencies are Aceh Besar, Gayo Lues and Bireuen.[5] A 2023 agency release on the same programme names four, adding North Aceh.[7]

Horizontal timeline from 1891 to 2026 marking ten points in the administration of cannabis in Aceh, each labelled with a year and a short description.
Cannabis administration in Aceh, from Snouck Hurgronje's fieldwork of 1891 and 1892 to the provincial police operations of 2026. The provincial ordinance of 1924 came three years before the national decree of 1927.

Growing Regions

RegionHas conservation status
Northern SumatraUnknown

Growing Areas

Growing AreaHas growing regionHas conservation status
Gayo LuesNorthern SumatraUnknown
SeulimeumNorthern SumatraUnknown

Accessions

No accessions documented yet.

Conservation status

Stub
This section is incomplete. Add sources and expand it.

A search of the Global Biodiversity Information Facility for Cannabis sativa in Indonesia returns four preserved specimens. One is Lörzing 6821 (1919), collected by J.A. Lörzing on the Karo plateau of North Sumatra in 1919; the other three are from Java and have no named collector. None is from Aceh.[42]

Recent news

ArticleDateRegencyCategory
News:2026-10-13/Enforcement/lueng-bata-police-arrest-a-man-found-watering-21-cannabis-plants-he-grew-in-a-neighbours-yard-at-batoh-banda-aBanda AcehEnforcement
News:2026-09-18/Eradication/polres-gayo-lues-destroys-an-estimated-26-5-hectares-of-cannabis-in-the-pining-mountainsGayo Lues RegencyEradication
News:2026-09-17/Eradication/army-intelligence-detachment-says-it-burned-about-3-500-cannabis-plants-on-1-5-hectares-in-lambada-seulimeumAceh BesarEradication
News:2026-09-15/Eradication/aceh-besar-police-destroy-about-3-500-cannabis-plants-on-one-hectare-at-pulo-in-seulimeumAceh BesarEradication
News:2026-08-27/Enforcement/polres-aceh-tenggara-seizes-708-82-g-of-cannabis-and-arrests-three-at-darul-hasanahSoutheast AcehEnforcement
News:2026-08-13/Enforcement/joint-operation-destroys-cannabis-at-nine-sites-across-about-four-hectares-in-sawang-north-acehNorth AcehEradication
News:2026-08-04/Enforcement/bireuen-prosecutors-destroy-155-49-kg-of-forfeited-cannabis-from-five-concluded-casesBireuenEnforcement
News:2026-04-29/Enforcement/aceh-police-discover-20-hectare-marijuana-plantationAceh BesarEradication
News:2026-02-15/Trafficking/aceh-police-seize-50-kg-of-cannabis-in-bireuen-traffic-stopBireuenTrafficking
News:2025-11-14/Enforcement/bareskrim-destroys-51-75-hectares-of-cannabis-across-26-sites-in-gayo-luesGayo Lues RegencyEradication

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Snouck Hurgronje, C. (1906). The Achehnese. Vol. II. Translated by O'Sullivan, A.W.S. Index by R.J. Wilkinson. Leyden: E.J. Brill. p. 53 – via Internet Archive.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Boorsma, W.G. (1918). "Over het voorkomen en het gebruik van Indische hennep in Ned.-Indië". Teysmannia (in Nederlands) (VI): 324–334.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 "Een gandja-verordening in Atjeh". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 26 November 1924 – via Delpher.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Putri, D.; Blickman, T. (January 2016). Cannabis in Indonesia: Patterns in consumption, production, and policies (Report). Drug Policy Briefing No. 44. Amsterdam: Transnational Institute.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 "Grand Design of Alternative Development (GDAD) 2016-2025 di Provinsi Aceh". BNN (in Bahasa Indonesia). Badan Narkotika Nasional. 21 December 2017. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Operasi Pertama Di Tahun 2025, BNN Musnahkan 12 Ton Ganja Di Aceh Besar". BNN (in Bahasa Indonesia). Badan Narkotika Nasional. 24 April 2025. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 "BNN RI Musnahkan Ladang Ganja Di Ketinggian 1.300 MDPL". BNN (in Bahasa Indonesia). Badan Narkotika Nasional. 2 October 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 "4 Fakta Ladang Ganja 51,75 Hektare di Aceh Dibongkar Bareskrim". detikNews (in Bahasa Indonesia). 20 November 2025. Retrieved 8 August 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Supiyani; Salsabil, S.; Mumtazah, A.; Syakira, A. (2025). "Profiling of various dry Cannabis sativa from Aceh, Indonesia, based on cannabinoids spectroscopy characteristics". Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 15 (1). doi:10.1186/s41935-025-00480-y.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Siahaan, U.; Marpaung, H.; Tamrin (2019). "Analysis of Ganja Chemical Content (Cannabis Sativa L.) Discussion Results in the Aceh Regional Police Region Using the GC-MS Method". International Journal on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication. 7 (2): 40–45. doi:10.17762/ijritcc.v7i2.5231.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Petani di Aceh Ditangkap Polisi saat Bawa 4 Karung Ganja". detikSumut (in Bahasa Indonesia). 20 February 2026. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Polres Lhokseumawe Musnahkan Ladang Ganja di 9 Lokasi Dalam Wilayah Sawang Aceh Utara". Serambinews (in Bahasa Indonesia). 14 August 2026. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Aceh Police Discover 20-Hectare Marijuana Plantation". Tempo. 30 April 2026. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Cultures en Nijverheid. Indische hennep". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 10 September 1912 – via Delpher.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Boorsma, W.G. (1917). "Pharmacologisch laboratorium". Jaarboek van het departement van landbouw, nijverheid en handel 1915 (in Nederlands). Batavia: Landsdrukkerij. pp. 21–29.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Opium". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 19 September 1916 – via Delpher.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "De opiumregie". De Locomotief (in Nederlands). 16 August 1918 – via Delpher.
  18. ↑ "Verbouw van Indische hennep. Een misdrijf". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 25 July 1934 – via Delpher.
  19. ↑ Schulze, K.E. (2004). The Free Aceh Movement (GAM): Anatomy of a Separatist Organization (PDF) (Report). Policy Studies. Washington: East-West Center. ISBN 1-932728-03-1.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Kingsbury, D.; McCulloch, L. (2006). "Military Business in Aceh". In Reid, Anthony (ed.). Verandah of Violence: The Background to the Aceh Problem. Singapore: Singapore University Press. pp. 213–214. ISBN 9971-69-331-3.
  21. ↑ "BNN musnahkan 10 ribu batang ganja di Aceh". Antara News Aceh (in Bahasa Indonesia). Antara. 15 August 2024. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "BNN RI Musnahkan 2 Hektare Lahan Ganja di Aceh Besar". BNN (in Bahasa Indonesia). Badan Narkotika Nasional. 11 September 2025. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  23. ↑ Gani, Muliadi (16 September 2026). "Polres Aceh Besar Musnahkan 3.500 Batang Ganja di Perbukitan Seulimeum Seluas 1 Hektare". Prohaba (in Bahasa Indonesia). Retrieved 11 October 2026.
  24. ↑ "Deninteldam IM Temukan dan Musnahkan 3.500 Batang Ganja di Aceh Besar". Grow Media Indonesia (in Bahasa Indonesia). 18 September 2026. Retrieved 11 October 2026.
  25. ↑ Hasyim, Ansari (21 September 2026). "Polisi Temumukan 26,5 Hektare Ladang Ganja di Pegunungan Pining, 180 Kg Ganja Kering Diamankan". Serambinews (in Bahasa Indonesia). Retrieved 11 October 2026.
  26. ↑ "Opiumverbruik in Atjeh". Deli Courant (in Nederlands). 31 January 1935 – via Delpher.
  27. ↑ "Vervoer van Indische hennep. Uit Atjeh". Deli Courant (in Nederlands). 5 February 1935 – via Delpher.
  28. ↑ "Verkoop van verdoovende middelen. Chinees aan de Spoorstraat verbaliseerd". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 9 August 1935 – via Delpher.
  29. ↑ "Gandja-verkooper veroordeeld. Hij wist van niets af!". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 12 December 1935 – via Delpher.
  30. ↑ "Gandja-verkooper gesnapt". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 9 March 1939 – via Delpher.
  31. ↑ "Verboden aanplant van gandja". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 12 July 1941 – via Delpher.
  32. ↑ McGibbon, Rodd (2006). "Local Leadership and the Aceh Conflict". In Reid, Anthony (ed.). Verandah of Violence: The Background to the Aceh Problem. Singapore: Singapore University Press. pp. 315–359. ISBN 9971-69-331-3.
  33. ↑ "Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2026 tentang Penyesuaian Pidana" [Law No. 1 of 2026 on Criminal Penalty Adjustment]. peraturan.bpk.go.id (in Bahasa Indonesia). Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan. 2 January 2026. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  34. ↑ "Kejari Bireuen Musnahkan Belasan Karung Ganja Kering". Serambinews (in Bahasa Indonesia). 4 August 2026. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
  35. ↑ "Qanun Aceh Nomor 8 Tahun 2018 tentang Fasilitasi Pencegahan Penyalahgunaan Narkotika" [Aceh Qanun No. 8 of 2018 on Facilitating the Prevention of Narcotics Abuse] (PDF). peraturan.bpk.go.id (in Bahasa Indonesia). Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan. 31 December 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  36. ↑ "Profil Rafli, Anggota DPR F-PKS yang Usulkan Ekspor Ganja" [Profile of Rafli, the PKS member of the House who proposed exporting cannabis]. detikNews (in Bahasa Indonesia). 31 January 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Legislator PKS Asal Aceh Usul Ganja Bisa Diekspor, PPP Menolak" [PKS legislator from Aceh proposes that cannabis be exported; PPP objects]. Tirto.id (in Bahasa Indonesia). 31 January 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  38. ↑ "BNN menolak tegas usulan ekspor ganja dari legislator PKS" [BNN firmly rejects a PKS legislator's proposal to export cannabis]. Antara News Jawa Barat (in Bahasa Indonesia). Antara. 2 February 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  39. ↑ "Ma'ruf Tegaskan Pemerintah Tak Mungkin Legalkan Ekspor Ganja" [Ma'ruf says the government cannot possibly legalise cannabis exports]. CNN Indonesia (in Bahasa Indonesia). 5 February 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  40. ↑ "MPU Aceh dukung legalisasi ganja untuk keperluan medis" [Aceh ulama council backs legalising cannabis for medical purposes]. Antara News Aceh (in Bahasa Indonesia). Antara. 1 July 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  41. ↑ "Rancangan Qanun Legalisasi Ganja Medis Diusulkan Masuk Prolegda 2023" [Draft qanun on legalising medical cannabis proposed for the 2023 regional legislation programme]. RMOL (in Bahasa Indonesia). 4 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  42. ↑ "Occurrence search: Cannabis sativa, Indonesia". GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 September 2026.
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