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United States and cannabis eradication abroad

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The government of the United States has taken part in cannabis eradication abroad since 1969, when a presidential task force named Mexico as the largest source of the marijuana smoked in the United States and recommended that the State Department persuade the Mexican government to make eradication a national priority.[1]: 6, 35 Its part took four forms: pressure on producing countries, beginning with the border searches of Operation Intercept that year; money for eradication programmes; aircraft, spraying equipment and advisers, among them agents of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA); and intelligence on where cannabis was grown and how much reached the United States. Between the 1970s and the 2000s Mexico, Colombia, Belize, Guatemala, Jamaica, Thailand and South Africa received such help for campaigns against cannabis.

From 1975 the campaigns turned to herbicides sprayed from aircraft. Mexico sprayed cannabis with the herbicide paraquat from late 1975. Colombia and South Africa later sprayed glyphosate. In Belize, where Mexican helicopters had sprayed paraquat in 1983, the government said in 1985 that it would not use paraquat again and was looking at the herbicide "Glythosat" (see Herbicide spraying of cannabis).[2] Concern for the health of Americans who smoked sprayed marijuana led Congress in 1978 to bar US aid for spraying that could harm them, a bar it replaced in 1981. Officials and campaigners disputed at the time whether US money paid for spraying Mexican marijuana or only opium poppy. Later studies answer the question differently.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) wrote assessments of marijuana growing and smuggling and sat on the interagency committee that estimated the drug supply. Other claims about the United States and cannabis abroad are told as stories or allegations. The historian Lina Britto describes the story that Peace Corps volunteers started Colombia's marijuana export trade as a rumour repeated without documentary evidence. A CIA spokesman called "ridiculous" the suggestion, made by former DEA agents, that the agency had anything to do with the murder of a DEA agent in Mexico in 1985.

Mexico

Operation Intercept

The task force reported on 6 June 1969 that Mexico had "become by far our largest supplier of marihuana". It recommended that the State Department "devote its efforts to persuading Mexico to place a program for eradication and control of marihuana and dangerous drugs among the highest of its national priorities".[1]: 6, 35 On 20 August the State Department told its embassy in Mexico City that "Operation Intercept" would be a "full-fledged U.S. effort along entire U.S.-Mexican border to interrupt traffic of drugs and marihuana from Mexico", expected to last about a month.[3] The operation was set to begin at 3 p.m. Los Angeles time on Sunday 21 September 1969.[4] Every vehicle crossing the border was to be inspected.[5]: 1 The historian Adela Cedillo writes that the Nixon administration "coerced Mexico" through the operation. In her account the economic cost of the border shutdown compelled the government of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz to accept "key aspects of the so-called 'war on drugs'" by agreeing to Operation Cooperation.[5]: 1 Operation Cooperation replaced Intercept on 10 October. In November Nixon wrote to Díaz Ordaz of his "personal regret for the friction which Operation Intercept has caused in the relations of our two countries".[4]

In their history of the Thai stick trade, Peter Maguire and Mike Ritter write that the crackdown "pushed smugglers to set up operations from farther-flung Hippie Trail outposts".[6]: 26

Money, aircraft and agents

In February 1977 the Comptroller General reported to Representative Charles B. Rangel, in a review of opium eradication, that the United States had contributed about $35 million to Mexican narcotics control since 1970.[7] For the joint campaign against opium poppy begun in November 1975, which the DEA called Trizo, the agency sent agents and contract pilots of the Evergreen Corporation who had flown in Vietnam and the Southeast Asian Golden Triangle. It also gave financial and technical help and intelligence.[5]: 8 DEA agents stationed in Mexico were paid for by the US International Narcotics Control Program; they went with Mexican federal police on reconnaissance and on missions to verify that poppy and marijuana fields had been destroyed.[8] The two historians name the campaigns differently. Carlos Pérez Ricart writes that in Mexico the 1975–1976 campaign was named Operation CANADOR, from cannabis and adormidera (opium poppy),[8] while Cedillo applies the name Canador to the campaigns of 1969 to 1975.[5]: 8 After 1977, when Mexico named the operation Condor, the DEA went on providing "human, technical, and financial resources".[5]: 9

A General Accounting Office witness told a House committee in August 1987 that the State Department and the office of Mexico's Attorney General had been "long-term partners in a program to destroy opium poppy and marijuana fields in Mexico with herbicides sprayed from aircraft". US appropriations for the programme since 1977 exceeded $150 million; $15.5 million was allocated for fiscal year 1987.[9]: 1 The same statement put Mexico's share of the US marijuana supply at 6 per cent, about 750 tonnes, by 1982 and at 37 per cent of imported marijuana, more than 3,000 tonnes, by 1986.[9]: 3

Paraquat and who paid for it

The Mexican government began spraying cannabis fields with paraquat in late 1975 and intensified the programme in 1976.[10] In March 1978, 13 of 61 marijuana samples from the south-western United States contained the herbicide.[11] The International Security Assistance Act, signed on 26 September 1978, provided that narcotics-control aid under the Foreign Assistance Act could not be used for spraying a herbicide on marijuana "if the use of that herbicide is likely to cause serious harm to the health of persons who may use or consume the sprayed marihuana", unless the herbicide was used with a substance that would warn them.[12] In April 1981 the DEA administrator, Peter Bensinger, and the former White House drug adviser Lee Dogoloff called for paraquat spraying in Colombia. A House subcommittee had prepared legislation to repeal the bar.[13] The International Security and Development Cooperation Act of December 1981 rewrote the section. The Secretary of State was now to tell the Secretary of Health and Human Services whenever a country receiving aid used a herbicide on marijuana. The act also urged the President to spend at least $100,000 on developing a substance that would warn users that marijuana had been sprayed with paraquat.[14] The campaign is described further in Herbicide spraying in Mexico.

Whether US money paid for spraying marijuana, as against opium poppy, was disputed at the time. At a Senate hearing in May 1978 Senator George McGovern said that the administration maintained that the marijuana spraying in Mexico was "totally a Mexican initiative". The Attorney General of New Mexico, Toney Anaya, passed on the view of Mexico's Attorney General that the programme was "totally a Mexican-run, Mexican-funded eradication effort". Keith Stroup of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws testified that the United States had provided more than $50 million since 1973 and that the programme was "primarily paid for by U.S. funds": the United States trained the pilots and provided the aircraft, while Mexico bought its paraquat from England.[15] Philip Landrigan and his co-authors wrote in 1983 that the spraying programme was "supported indirectly by United States funds".[11] The Christian Science Monitor reported in 1981 that it had been "funded by Washington" until concern for the health of American users halted the money.[13] A RAND study of 1992 found instead that the United States "was exerting pressure only for spraying of the opium fields" and that the Mexican government took the initiative on marijuana because it feared that marijuana might come into wide use at home.[16]: 20 Pérez Ricart writes that the Carter administration argued that its funds paid for spraying opium poppy fields, not marijuana.[8]

Colombia

Colombian growers took over much of the market that Mexican marijuana lost. A CIA assessment of 1982 dated Colombia's dominance to "the mid-1970s when the use of paraquat to eradicate marijuana crops reduced Mexican supplies".[17] The General Accounting Office linked the decline of Mexican and Jamaican supply to eradication, interdiction and the reluctance of American users to buy marijuana that might carry paraquat. It put Colombia's share of the US market at 79 per cent in 1981, its peak.[18]: 30

In August 1978 a CIA review reported an estimate from Colombia's Attorney General's office of as many as 70,000 hectares of marijuana in the Guajira region, which "has emerged as the prime source".[19] Two weeks later it reported that the Colombian government had asked for US logistic support for operations in the Guajira: fuel, spare parts, communications equipment and radar.[20] The State Department, the DEA, the Coast Guard, the Customs Service and the Immigration and Naturalization Service had already run Operation Stopgap, a campaign to intercept Colombian marijuana at sea, from December 1977 to February 1978.[17] In November 1978 the governments of Jimmy Carter and Julio César Turbay launched the "Two Peninsulas" campaign, aimed at the trade of both the Guajira and Florida peninsulas. Under decree 2144 of 1978 a joint force that included DEA agents occupied the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Guajira. Some months later the Sierra was fumigated.[21]: 160, 171 Britto writes that figures for seizures, fumigated area and arrests "became an element of political football on which U.S. military and police aid to Colombia depended".[21]: 171

Colombia began spraying marijuana from the air in July 1984, choosing glyphosate rather than paraquat. US officials said that no US funds were used, although the Colombian authorities were "reportedly using American helicopters supplied originally to help in spotting marijuana and poppy fields".[22] In 1987 the national police air wing, SAPOL, sprayed glyphosate from six US-provided helicopters and a Turbo Thrush aircraft, flown by police pilots from two air bases in the north-east.[18]: 32 The State Department reported that three Thrush aircraft from its aviation programme destroyed about 6,100 hectares of marijuana in 1987.[23]: 19 Totals differ between sources. The General Accounting Office credited the programme with more than 33,000 hectares from 1984 to 1987. It found that US officials did very little to check the daily figures the Colombian police supplied.[18]: 32, 34 The interagency intelligence estimate put the area destroyed by the spraying at about 6,000 hectares in 1985 and 9,700 in 1986, mainly in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Serranía del Perijá.[24]: 17 In August 1985 members of a House select committee landed by helicopter at a sprayed site in Colombia and watched helicopters spray a marijuana field nearby.[25]

The General Accounting Office reported that growers answered the spraying by planting in the lower reaches of canyons, making fields smaller, planting marijuana among legitimate crops and spreading cultivation beyond the traditional growing areas. Spray pilots reported that the average field had shrunk from about 1.3 hectares before spraying to about 0.4 hectares in 1986. New planting in other parts of Colombia outpaced the spraying: net cultivation rose by more than 150 per cent between 1985 and 1987.[18]: 32 The campaign is described further in Herbicide spraying in Colombia.

Belize, Guatemala and Jamaica

In October 1983 a State Department official, Deputy Assistant Secretary Jon Thomas, told a House select committee that "the Government of Mexico is spraying cannabis crops in the country of Belize with paraquat", using Mexican aircraft and pilots. The department's statement added that its environmental impact statement of December 1982 "enables us to support Western Hemispheric nations in the use of paraquat against cannabis".[26] The government of Belize began its own aerial eradication in October 1985, destroying about 500 hectares that year and about 2,400 hectares in a follow-up spraying in 1986.[24]: 19 In 1987, the State Department reported, "Three U.S. Government-assisted aerial eradication campaigns" destroyed an estimated 80 per cent of the Belizean marijuana crop, as the programme moved from periodic intensive campaigns to regular spraying.[23]: 19, 34 The campaign is described further in Herbicide spraying in Belize.

In Guatemala, aircraft and personnel of the State Department's Bureau of International Narcotics Matters carried out a first eradication campaign against opium poppy and marijuana with the Guatemalan authorities in May and June 1987. The marijuana was "destroyed through chemical spraying".[23]: 19, 37

A CIA memorandum of July 1985 credited Jamaican security forces "with US support" with destroying more marijuana in the first five months of that year than in all of 1984. It described an aerial survey of the spring crop by the Jamaica Defence Force "with the assistance of US experts".[27] In March 1985 the Jamaican government repeated that it would not spray marijuana fields with paraquat, answering a US government report that it had refused to use spraying.[28] A CIA assessment of July 1986 recorded that Prime Minister Edward Seaga insisted on manual methods because, he said, chemical eradication might have serious environmental and political consequences; it judged that US aid "in the form of transport helicopters" would let eradication teams cut production further.[29] In 1987 Jamaica eradicated about 60 per cent of its marijuana "through use of manual eradication and backpack sprayers". The State Department said it would "continue to press the Government of Jamaica to begin aerial eradication of marijuana".[23]: 27

Thailand

The General Accounting Office reported in 1988 that "The primary U.S. goal in Thailand is to reduce opium and marijuana cultivation" and that the United States funded Thai crop eradication.[30]: 11 Speaking in Bangkok in March 1986, Attorney General Edwin Meese told a conference of US narcotics coordinators that the Thai Border Patrol Police and Provincial Police had "launched extensive manual marijuana eradication campaigns in the northeast, destroying more than 1,900 tons of fresh marijuana in the fields".[31] The Thai government claimed to have eradicated 2,400 hectares in 1985 and more than 3,000 in 1986. Nearly 80 per cent of Thai marijuana was grown in the provinces of the north-east (Isan).[24]: 20

In February 1986 the White House drug adviser Carlton E. Turner recorded a telephone call to the Narcotics Assistance Unit in Thailand, where a contact told him of an "explosion" of cannabis production for the American market. The note of the call ends: "Thailand may be going from opium to marijuana, where others went from marijuana to opium."[32] The State Department's narcotics bureau said in 1988 that it would work with Asian governments to expand opium and marijuana eradication and would "urge countries to use herbicides in their eradication campaigns".[23]: 25

South Africa

The South African Police switched from uprooting cannabis by hand to herbicides in 1980, at first sprayed from hand pumps. By the end of the decade helicopters had replaced ground patrols.[33] In 2004 the United States government donated a helicopter and three aerial spraying devices to the police air wing; the US ambassador told News24 that it was "in the US interest" to help fight the drug trade.[34] The journalist Lisa Nowicki, reporting from Mpondoland in 2024, wrote that the helicopters that became part of police eradication in the 1990s "were donated by the US government", that they sprayed glyphosate twice a year and that the spraying stopped only in 2016.[35] A 2016 statement published by the International Drug Policy Consortium asserted that "funding and technical support for this programme comes from Europe and the United States".[36] The campaign is described further in Herbicide spraying in South Africa.

The Central Intelligence Agency

The National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee was set up in April 1978 to coordinate strategic drug intelligence. The CIA was one of its 12 member agencies, with the DEA, the State Department and the National Institute on Drug Abuse among the others.[24]: Preface The agency's own reports on cannabis estimated growing areas and trade. Its assessment of 1982 found that Colombia supplied three-fourths of the marijuana consumed in the United States. It also reported that "Allegations of payoffs to Colombian authorities have surfaced in nearly all of DEA's most important Colombian marijuana investigations since 1978".[17] Its reports on Jamaica in 1985 and 1986 assessed the island's crop and eradication.[27][29]

The historian Alfred McCoy writes that from 1951 the CIA front company Sea Supply Corporation equipped the Thai police and that the CIA created the Police Aerial Reconnaissance Unit and the Border Patrol Police for duty in the northern opium zone.[37]: 184 The Border Patrol Police were one of the two forces that ran manual marijuana eradication in the north-east in the mid-1980s.[31] In Laos, McCoy writes, an Air America network under the Hmong general Vang Pao "carried away their men to battle or their opium to market".[37]: 291 Hmong communities had settled in numbers in Siam in the last years of the 19th century.[38]: 88

Allegations and stories

Peace Corps volunteers in Colombia

A story told in Colombia credits Peace Corps volunteers with starting the marijuana export trade of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Britto writes that "rumor has it that former Peace Corps volunteers who stayed in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta organized the first marijuana export loads", a version historians have repeated "in spite of the lack of documentary evidence to support it". She traces the trade instead to young Americans and Colombians who carried small quantities of Colombian marijuana to the United States. The volunteers arrived in the mid-1960s, when marijuana growing and smoking were already established within Colombia.[21]: 164 A 2018 thesis on the town of Villanueva in La Guajira heads a section "Cuerpos de paz, el Genesis" (Peace Corps, the Genesis). It quotes Darío Betancourt and Martha Luz García, who wrote in 1994 that the volunteers came upon Colombian marijuana and named it "Colombian Gold" and "Santa Marta Gold".[39]: 80–81

Rancho Búfalo and the DFS

In November 1984 a marijuana plantation was found at El Búfalo in Chihuahua; the court that later sentenced the trafficker Rafael Caro Quintero placed its fields in the municipality of Jiménez. The Mexican daily Excélsior put the crop at 8,000 tonnes.[40] Caro Quintero was arrested in April 1985 and charged with the kidnapping and murder of the DEA agent Enrique Camarena.[40] In 2013 Fox News quoted US intelligence documents saying that smugglers working for Caro Quintero were always accompanied by two agents of the Mexican Federal Security Directorate (DFS). The former DEA agent Hector Berrellez said that "the DFS, their main role was to protect the drug lords". Phil Jordan said Mexican authorities had told him that CIA operatives were present at Camarena's interrogation. A CIA spokesman called it "ridiculous" to suggest that the agency had anything to do with the murder. The same report recalled that in 1998 the CIA's Inspector General, Fred Hitz, told Congress he had found no evidence of any CIA conspiracy to bring drugs into the United States.[41]

Contra supply flights

A Senate subcommittee chaired by John Kerry heard testimony on drug smuggling by pilots who also flew supplies to the Nicaraguan Contras. The pilot Gary Betzner testified that after delivering grenades and mines to the Contras at Ilopango in El Salvador in 1983, he and his co-pilot flew on to Colombia, picked up a load of marijuana and returned to the Bahamas. The smuggler George Morales, under indictment for marijuana smuggling when he began to help the Contras, testified that he hoped their leaders would help him with his legal problems; the subcommittee wrote that he believed this "because of their contacts with the CIA".[42]

G13

Jason King wrote in 2006 that the drug-type strain G13 was supposed to have been "liberated" from the government cannabis farm of the University of Mississippi in the late 1970s or early 1980s, and that "no one seems to agree" on anything about it.[43]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Special Presidential Task Force Relating to Narcotics, Marijuana and Dangerous Drugs (6 June 1969). Task Force Report: Narcotics, Marijuana & Dangerous Drugs: Findings and Recommendations (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via National Security Archive.
  2. ↑ Joint Publications Research Service (26 November 1985). Paraquat spraying, ties with U.S. subject of disagreement. Latin America Report (Report). Foreign Broadcast Information Service. pp. 53–54. JPRS-LAM-85-098 – via Internet Archive.
  3. ↑ Kraft, Douglas; Siekmeier, James F., eds. (2009). "Telegram 140240 from the Department of State to the Embassy in Mexico, Washington, August 20, 1969". Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume E–10, Documents on American Republics, 1969–1972. Washington: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. Document 435. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Kraft, Douglas; Siekmeier, James F., eds. (2009). "Mexico". Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume E–10, Documents on American Republics, 1969–1972. Washington: Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. Documents 435–445. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Cedillo, Adela (May 2021). Operation Condor, the War on Drugs, and Counterinsurgency in the Golden Triangle (1977–1983) (PDF) (Report). Kellogg Institute for International Studies Working Paper. University of Notre Dame. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  6. ↑ Maguire, Peter; Ritter, Mike (2013). Thai Stick: Surfers, Scammers, and the Untold Story of the Marijuana Trade. Foreword by David Farber. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-16134-3.
  7. ↑ Comptroller General of the United States (18 February 1977). Opium Eradication Efforts in Mexico: Cautious Optimism Advised (PDF) (Unclassified digest). Washington: U.S. General Accounting Office. GGD-77-6. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Pérez Ricart, Carlos A. (2020). "Taking the War on Drugs Down South: The Drug Enforcement Administration in Mexico (1973–1980)". The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs. 34 (1): 82–113. doi:10.1086/707645.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Kelley, Joseph E. (5 August 1987). U.S.-Mexico Opium Poppy and Marijuana Aerial Eradication Program (PDF) (Statement before the Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, House of Representatives). Washington: U.S. General Accounting Office. GAO/T-NSIAD-87-42. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  10. ↑ Turner, Carlton E.; Cheng, Ping C.; Torres, Lolita M.; ElSohly, Mahmoud A. (1978). "Detection and analysis of paraquat in confiscated marijuana samples". Bulletin on Narcotics. 30 (4): 47–56. PMID 258606.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Landrigan, P.J.; Powell, K.E.; James, L.M.; Taylor, P.R. (1983). "Paraquat and marijuana: epidemiologic risk assessment". American Journal of Public Health. 73 (7): 784–788. doi:10.2105/AJPH.73.7.784. PMC 1650884. PMID 6859364.
  12. ↑ International Security Assistance Act of 1978(Public Law No. 95-384), 26 September 1978, s. 4; 92 Stat. 730.95th Congress.United States.Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Press, Robert M. (9 April 1981). "US drug agents want paraquat used to kill Colombian marijuana crops". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  14. ↑ International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1981(Public Law No. 97-113), 29 December 1981, s. 502; 95 Stat. 1538–1539.97th Congress.United States.Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  15. ↑ United States Senate Subcommittee on International Operations of the Committee on Foreign Relations (1978). International Narcotics Control Programs: Hearing on Oversight of the International Narcotics Control Programs, May 9, 1978 (Report). 95th Congress, 2nd Session. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
  16. ↑ Reuter, Peter; Ronfeldt, David (1992). Quest for Integrity: The Mexican-U.S. Drug Issue in the 1980s (Report). RAND Note. Santa Monica: RAND. N-3266-USDP. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Global Issues (September 1982). Smuggling Colombian Marijuana: A High-Profit Venture (Intelligence assessment). Central Intelligence Agency. GI 82-10211. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 U.S. General Accounting Office (November 1988). Drug Control: U.S.-Supported Efforts in Colombia and Bolivia (PDF) (Report to the Congress). Washington. GAO/NSIAD-89-24. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  19. ↑ National Foreign Assessment Center (16 August 1978). International Narcotics Review (Report). Central Intelligence Agency. RP INR 78-002. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
  20. ↑ National Foreign Assessment Center (30 August 1978). International Narcotics Review (Report). Central Intelligence Agency. RP INR 78-003. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Britto, Lina (2010). "A Trafficker's Paradise: The "War On Drugs" and the New Cold War in Colombia". Contemporánea: Historia y problemas del siglo XX. 1 (1): 159–177. ISSN 1688-7638.
  22. ↑ Ledford, Joey (11 July 1984). "Colombia's decision to spray its marijuana with the herbicide..." UPI Archives. United Press International. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Bureau of International Narcotics Matters (1 March 1988). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (June 1987). The NNICC Report 1985–1986: The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States from Foreign and Domestic Sources in 1985 and 1986 (with Near Term Projections) (PDF) (Report) – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  25. ↑ Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, U.S. House of Representatives (1986). Latin American Study Missions Concerning International Narcotics Problems (August 3–19, 1985) (PDF) (Committee print). Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. SCNAC-99-2-1. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  26. ↑ Select Committee on Narcotics Abuse and Control, U.S. House of Representatives (1984). Effects of Drug Trafficking and Drug Abuse in the South Florida Community: Hearings, October 12 and 13, 1983 (Report). 98th Congress, 1st Session. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. SCNAC-98-1-5 – via Internet Archive.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Directorate of Intelligence (July 1985). Jamaica: Marijuana Estimate, Spring 1985 (Memorandum). Central Intelligence Agency. GI M 85-10211. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
  28. ↑ "Caribbean News Briefs". UPI Archives. United Press International. 21 March 1985. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Global Issues (July 1986). Jamaica: Progress in Marijuana Control (Intelligence assessment). Central Intelligence Agency. GI 86-10051. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via CIA FOIA Electronic Reading Room.
  30. ↑ U.S. General Accounting Office (February 1988). Drug Control: U.S. Supported Efforts in Burma, Pakistan, and Thailand (PDF) (Report). Washington. GAO/NSIAD-88-94. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Edwin Meese III (18 March 1986). Address of the Honorable Edwin Meese III, Attorney General of the United States, before East Asia Pacific Narcotics Coordinators Conference (PDF) (Speech). Bangkok: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  32. ↑ Turner, Carlton E. (12 February 1986). Memorandum for the file: Thailand (PDF) (Memorandum). Turner, Carlton E.: Files, Chron File March 1985–July 1986 (8), Box 2. Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  33. ↑ de Greef, K. (7 April 2016). "Cash crops poisoned in Pondoland". GroundUp.
  34. ↑ de Greef, Kimon (20 April 2016). "Battle to stop dagga spraying". GroundUp. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  35. ↑ Nowicki, L. (29 July 2024). "Mpondoland dagga growers left out to dry". GroundUp.
  36. ↑ "Cannabis: forced crop eradication in South Africa". International Drug Policy Consortium. 19 January 2016.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 McCoy, Alfred W. (2003). The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (Revised ed.). Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 978-1-55652-483-7.
  38. ↑ Michaud, Jean; Culas, Christian (1997). "Les Hmong de la péninsule indochinoise : migrations et histoire" (PDF). Autrepart (in français) (3): 79–104.
  39. ↑ Rada Verdecia, Iván Alonso (2018). Cultivadores, comerciantes y marimberos. Historia social del municipio de Villanueva – Guajira, 1974–1986 (Licenciatura en Ciencias Sociales thesis) (in español). Bogotá: Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. hdl:20.500.12209/10543.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Díaz G., Pedro (15 July 2022). "8 mil toneladas de mariguana en 'El Búfalo', la debacle de Caro Quintero". Excélsior (in español). Mexico City. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  41. ↑ La Jeunesse, William (10 October 2013). "US intelligence assets in Mexico reportedly tied to murdered DEA agent". Fox News. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  42. ↑ United States Senate Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations of the Committee on Foreign Relations (1989). Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy (Committee print). Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. S. Prt. 100-165 – via Internet Archive.
  43. ↑ King, Jason (2006). The Cannabible 3. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. section "The government cannabis farm in Mississippi: G-13?". ISBN 978-1-58008-784-1.
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