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Philippines

From Landrace.wiki
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Philippines
Pilipinas
El Nido, Palawan
El Nido, Palawan
Capital Manila
Continent Asia
Subregion Southeast Asia
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal; CBD medicines by special permit
Status Since 2002
Enforcement Active eradication campaigns
Documentation
Growing Regions 1
Growing Areas 4
Accessions 9
Conservation
Populations none documented yet


Philippines (Pilipinas) is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Cannabis is a dangerous drug under the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002 (Republic Act No. 9165), which penalises planting or cultivating the plant "regardless of quantity" and provides for the confiscation of the land on which it grows.[1] Since 2020 drug products containing cannabidiol with no more than 0.1 percent tetrahydrocannabinol have been placed in Schedule 4 of the Philippine schedule of dangerous drugs. Licensed neurologists may prescribe them to patients who hold a special permit.[2] Bills to allow the medical use of cannabis passed the House of Representatives on third reading in 2019 and 2024 but did not complete passage in the Senate.[3][4]

A 1907 labelling rule for medicines named cannabis.[5] The plant entered the country's legal definition of prohibited drugs in 1953.[6] The sociologist Ricardo M. Zarco dated the illegal entry of marijuana to 1954 or 1955, drawing on Manila press reports of 1959.[7]

Cultivation is concentrated in the highlands of northern Luzon. A 2009 report of the United States Department of State put the share of the country's marijuana grown in the Cordilleras at 70 percent and named Cebu as the second largest area of cultivation.[8] Police and drug-enforcement agents uproot plantations by hand.[9] The Dangerous Drugs Board has funded alternative-livelihood programmes for growing communities since 2008.[10]

Geography

A green river curving through a rocky gorge around a steep hill, with terraced fields stepped into the upper slope.
The mountains of Tinglayan, Kalinga. Police have reported plantations on Mount Chumanchil in this municipality.

United States reports on the drug trade placed the centres of cannabis cultivation in northern Luzon and the central Visayas in 1989.[11] By 2005 they named "the mountainous areas of Northern Luzon, Central Visayas, and central, southern, and western Mindanao" as the largest areas of cultivation.[12] The 1999 edition described growers as working "in areas which are inaccessible by vehicles, and controlled by rebel groups".[13]

The northern plantations lie in the Cordillera Administrative Region, created in 1987 from the provinces of Abra, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao and Mountain Province with the city of Baguio.[14] Kalinga and Apayao became separate provinces in 1995.[15] The region now comprises six provinces.[16] Court decisions and enforcement reports place plantations on Mount Chumanchil in Tinglayan, on Mount Churyon in Sadanga, at Tinoc in Ifugao and in the Benguet municipalities of Kibungan, Kapangan and Bakun.[17][18][19][20] Tinoc's terrain rises from 800 to 2,922 metres above sea level, the upper figure being the summit of Mount Pulag, the highest point in Luzon.[21] The Cordillera regional police chief said in 2024 that the plantations on Mount Chumanchil were made in kaingin (slash-and-burn) clearings, the growers burning and planting one part of the mountain after harvesting another.[22]

Reports also name Santol in La Union and Cebu in the Visayas.[23][8] In Mindanao they name the provinces of Bukidnon, Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi and the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.[24][25][26]

Demographics

The 2020 census put the population of the Philippines at 109,035,343.[27]

Communities with cannabis relationships

The name Igorot is used officially for eight Indigenous ethnolinguistic groups of the Cordillera. Airah Cadiogan traces it to a label Spanish colonisers coined "in reference to unsubjugated pagans residing in the mountains close to the Ilocos region", which "has since been embraced by those labeled as Igorots themselves".[16] The 1987 order creating the Cordillera region listed among its purposes the protection of "the cultural identity, values, mores and norms of the various ethno-linguistic groups in the Cordilleras".[14]

A 1990 State Department report wrote that "hill tribes in northern Luzon" had become aware of the profitability of cannabis and that "a number of farmers have shifted from vegetables and rice to cannabis cultivation".[11] In 2011 the same series, citing the Dangerous Drugs Board and local officials, reported that traffickers "contracted with indigenous groups in remote mountainous locations in Luzon and Mindanao" to grow marijuana that was then trafficked by "the big-city criminals".[23] The Cordillera director of the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency told reporters in 2020 that "Marijuana is done like high-value agriculture".[28] The agency's director-general said in 2022 that "the lack of alternative means of earning a living" remained one of the chief reasons farmers grew marijuana, from which they earned much more than from legal crops.[29]

Tinoc is inhabited mostly by the Kalanguya, one of the three major ethnolinguistic groups of Ifugao. Adrian Albano writes that some Tinoc farmers grew marijuana, "a much lighter but more valuable (though illegal) agricultural commodity", while the road was still distant.[21] A survey of Kalanguya plant medicine at Tinoc, submitted for publication in 2009, documented the use of a decoction of young cannabis shoots as a wash to disinfect wounds.[30]

Agriculture

Pale bundles of long plant fibre hanging over a pole to dry.
Abacá fibre, traded as "Manila hemp". The name refers to Musa textilis, a relative of the banana.

The temperate vegetable industry that started in Baguio, Albano writes, "emerged primarily to satisfy American demand for temperate vegetables" and later supplied Metro Manila.[21] In 1986 a Philippine Constabulary checkpoint at Tublay, Benguet flagged down 10 to 13 vehicles, "some of which had passengers carrying marijuana", before stopping a truck "laden with vegetables on its way to Baguio City" from Buguias.[31]

The fibre known in world trade as Manila hemp is abacá, Musa textilis. A Bureau of Agriculture bulletin of 1910 called the name "misleading as, properly speaking, hemp is the fiber produced by the plant Cannabis sativa".[32] Spanish-era dictionaries used the Spanish word cáñamo (hemp) to gloss local cordage fibres. The Jesuits Juan de Noceda and Pedro de Sanlúcar glossed Tagalog abacá as "Cañamo" and anabo as "Cañamo silvestre" (wild hemp) in 1754.[33] An Ilocano vocabulary of 1849 described abacá as a plantain "cuyo tronco hace las veces del cáñamo" (whose trunk does the work of hemp).[34]

Alternative development

The Dangerous Drugs Board adopted alternative development as one of five pillars of its drug-control approach in 1998.[35] In the same year the State Department reported a planned "integrated rural development program to eliminate marijuana" whose efforts had "not yet been funded".[36] The board's 2016 annual report lists the programmes it funded: sericulture in Kapangan, Kibungan and Bakun from 2008; agroforestry, coffee, citrus and temperate vegetables in Tinglayan from 2009; abacá and rainforestation farming at Balamban, Cebu and San Fernando, Bukidnon from 2009; and integrated agricultural production at Santol from 2009.[10] The State Department judged in 2011 that the success of these efforts "has been limited due to lack of funds, the remoteness of the locations, and resultant poor access to markets".[23]

In 2017 the Department of Agriculture offered production loans to convert Tinglayan plantations to coffee and gave 10,000 Arabica seedlings to the Loccong Gardeners Association.[37] In 2022 the Cordillera peace and order and development councils endorsed a Tinglayan master plan to move growers to other crops. A local non-governmental organisation formed the Mount Chumanchil Task Force to find them other livelihoods.[22] In 2026 the Dangerous Drugs Board asked the Cordillera Regional Development Council to prioritise farm-to-market roads, tourism access roads and irrigation for Kibungan, Kapangan and Bakun as "Alternative Development Sites".[38]

Cannabis in the Philippines

History

Main article: History of cannabis in the Philippines
A pressed cannabis branch with narrow serrated leaflets on a herbarium sheet, with two handwritten paper labels and a printed stamp at the foot.
A sheet of cannabis in the Paris herbarium, catalogued as collected in the Philippines by J. Barthe.

Cáñamo in colonial sources

The Augustinian botanist Manuel Blanco wrote of a fibre plant, Napaea scabra, that "en Manila (aunque muy pocos la conocen) se la reputa por semejante al cáñamo" (in Manila, though very few know it, it is reputed similar to hemp). The Latin text of the 1878 edition of his Flora de Filipinas states that at Manila it is held to be very like Cannabis sativa, its fibres being excellent for ropes.[39] The botanist Elmer Drew Merrill later identified Blanco's plant as a species of Malachra.[40] Blanco also judged abacá, though strong enough, very inferior to flax and to cáñamo in strength, lustre and feel.[41] A 1922 account by Manuel Artigas y Cuerva, librarian of the Philippine Library, reports a decree of 12 January 1777 directing the native population to devote itself to "la siembra, cultivo y beneficio del lino y cáñamo" (the sowing, cultivation and processing of flax and hemp).[42] The governor José Basco y Vargas entrusted flax and hemp sowings to a naval chaplain, Fernando Avilés, and a royal order of 24 September 1779 approved them.[43]

A sheet of cannabis in the herbarium of the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris, Barthe 1 (s.d.), is catalogued as collected in the Philippines by J. Barthe. Its catalogue entry gives no date.[44]

Pharmacy and the opium laws (1898–1953)

Under Spain opium was a state monopoly, run by contractors who won the right at public auction and sold to the Chinese population, while the governing decrees forbade "indios o mestizos" to smoke it. The American military government ended the system, taxed opium sales and closed the public smoking dens. Opium became a prohibited substance on 1 March 1908.[45] The Philippine Commission's Food and Drugs Act of 1907 required medicine labels to state the quantity of "cannabis indica" among other ingredients.[5] The Internal Revenue Law of 1914 defined prohibited drugs as "opium, cocaine, alpha, and beta eucaine, their derivatives, and all preparations made from them".[46] The Revised Penal Code of 1930 used the same list,[47] which Zarco noted "excluded marijuana or Indian hemp".[7]

A Bureau of Agriculture veterinarian tested an injected extract of "Cannabis americana" as an anaesthetic for animals in 1914.[48] The bureau's rinderpest trials of 1917 included "Cannabis Indica", which showed no curative value.[49]

Gamella and Martín regard the American administration's encounter with mass opiate use in its first colony as decisive in the creation of international narcotics control. The Episcopal bishop Charles Henry Brent, whom they name as the most influential figure in Philippine opium legislation, presided over the first international opium commission at Shanghai in 1909[45] and sat as a United States delegate "of the Philippine Islands" at the opium conference at The Hague.[50] Indian hemp was raised there at Italy's proposal. The conference's final protocol recommended only that it be studied.[51][52] Cannabis came under international control through the 1925 Geneva convention, following a call by the delegation of Egypt.[52]

Prohibition and the first plantations (1953–1972)

In June 1953 Republic Act No. 887 added "Indian hemp (marihuana)" to the prohibited drugs of the National Internal Revenue Code.[6] The Narcotic Drugs Law (Republic Act No. 953) of the same month declared: "As a national policy the cultivation of marihuana (indian hemp) and opium poppy is hereby declared prohibited."[53] Republic Act No. 2060 of 13 June 1958 added Indian hemp to the prohibited drugs of the Revised Penal Code.[54]

Zarco's account, drawn from Manila newspapers of January and February 1959, has the seeds given by American merchant marine sailors to residents of Pasay and Makati. Grown in flower pots, the flowering tops and leaves were dried, mixed with tobacco and rolled into cigarettes for sale to "Manila's addicts and transients". Philippine Constabulary raiders questioned arrested growers on 8 January 1959. Farmers in Masbate, Cebu and Negros Oriental were also found growing marijuana.[7] By 1972 the clinical director of the National Mental Hospital reported that 10 to 20 students and young people a day came to the attention of the narcotics division for marijuana and that there were indications of local dealers growing their own supplies. The report placed plantations around Manila and in Cavite, with others apparently on Negros, in the Bicol Region, in Mindanao and in Central Luzon.[55] Michael Tan linked the rise of the late 1960s to the influence of the western "hippie" culture and to the country's role as a transhipment point for a drug trade serving United States servicemen on rest and recreation from the Vietnam War.[56]

The Dangerous Drugs Act era (1972–2002)

The Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972 (Republic Act No. 6425), approved on 30 March 1972, classed Indian hemp as a "prohibited drug" and penalised its possession less heavily than that of other prohibited drugs. It set a penalty of 14 years and one day to life imprisonment for cultivation, with confiscation of the land unless the owner proved ignorance of the crop despite due diligence. The act also created the Dangerous Drugs Board.[57] Gideon Lasco and Vincen Gregory Yu write that the Constabulary Anti-Narcotics Unit, formed in the same year, was created "in large part" with United States intervention "to crack down on American soldiers in the Philippines who were covertly participating in the drug trade".[58]

A presidential decree of August 1980 stated that the volume of marijuana seized appeared to confirm "that the illegal growing, cultivation and production of marijuana plants remain unchecked", which it attributed to the act's failure to penalise the possession of seeds.[59] Decrees of the same year made the sale and the importation of prohibited drugs punishable by life imprisonment to death.[60][61] Batas Pambansa Blg. 179 of 1982 extended the definition of marijuana to seeds and to any part of the plant, raised the penalty for possession to six years and one day to twelve years and applied the cultivation offence to planting "on any medium", with the maximum penalty where the land was public.[62] The death-penalty law of 1993 (Republic Act No. 7659) prescribed reclusion perpetua to death for cultivation and for possession of 750 grams or more of marijuana.[63]

Since 2002

The Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002 repealed the 1972 act and created the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency as "the implementing arm of the Board".[1] On 1 July 2016, the day after Rodrigo Duterte took office, the chief of the Philippine National Police signed the memorandum circular for the police campaign known as Operation Double Barrel; as quoted by Amnesty International, it described the "drug personalities" it targeted as including any "marijuana cultivator".[64] The Dangerous Drugs Board counted "marijuana cultivators and plantations" among the conditions that marked a barangay as drug-affected.[65] Lasco and Yu describe a "methamphetamine exceptionalism" in the campaign, rooted in the perception that shabu is "especially dangerous as opposed to other drugs".[66] Lasco writes that cannabis "has been viewed less negatively in the Philippines", Duterte even joking about using it at the height of his campaign.[67] In 2022 the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency said marijuana had become the most abused illegal drug in the country and had accounted for 83 percent of its drug seizures in 2021.[29]

Under Ferdinand Marcos Jr. the Department of the Interior and Local Government launched the BIDA programme (Buhay Ingatan, Droga'y Ayawan) in 2022, focused on demand reduction and rehabilitation.[68] In his 2024 State of the Nation Address Marcos spoke of a "bloodless war on dangerous drugs".[69] Lasco notes that the administration has not taken concrete steps to repeal the 2002 act.[67]

Cultivation

Main article: Cannabis cultivation in the Philippines

In its report for 1987 the United States National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee identified the Philippines and Laos as the next largest cultivators and suppliers of cannabis after Thailand.[70] The State Department reported in 1988 that cultivation was "widespread throughout the islands of the Philippines" but "not considered to be a significant cash or subsidiary crop". It recorded the government's allegation that "Communist and Muslim insurgents are responsible for most of the marijuana cultivation and distribution".[71] Its 2007 edition said that the communist New People's Army had reportedly been involved in large-scale cultivation in the Cordillera since the mid-1980s. It also reported that police officials believed elements of the Abu Sayyaf group provided security for cultivation in Jolo and Tawi-Tawi.[26] In 2002 the authorities counted 98 identified plantation sites in nine regions.[25] The 2011 report said that marijuana had been grown openly in Santol for 40 years and that the town was often considered the largest source in the country.[23]

In 1988 an Army team detailed to the Narcotics Command uprooted 3,500 plants in the mountains of Guba and Talamban, Cebu.[72] In 2000 a plantation of about ten hectares on public land at Mount Churyon, Sadanga was the subject of a cultivation charge.[18] In 2005 police destroyed 1.085 million fully grown plants and 316,600 seedlings on an 11.5-hectare plantation at Sitio Mulam in Tinoc.[20] The Dangerous Drugs Board's 2016 annual report describes an operation in Tinglayan in August of that year, which eradicated 15 sites covering 48 hectares, as the largest of the year.[10] Between January and April 2026 Benguet police reported about 1,180,130 fully grown plants eradicated in Kibungan, 94,765 in Kapangan and 224,850 in Bakun.[19]

Varieties and the seed trade

Officials told the newspaper SunStar in 2016 that "the quality of marijuana from Kalinga is more potent than those from Benguet". The Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency's director Juvenal Azurin said that Kalinga marijuana was made into hashish because of its quality and was often taken abroad.[73] A sample named "Kalinga_Philippines" was sequenced by the firm Phylos Bioscience and deposited in 2016 with the National Center for Biotechnology Information, with its geographic location given as the Philippines.[74]

The seed seller The Landrace Team describes its "Kalinga" as a "Landrace from Northern Philippines" whose source was a "Local Filipino grower". It also sells lines it calls Buscalan Kalinga, Violeta Kalinga, Kibungan, Lagkitan and Baguio Gold.[75] Khalifa Genetics sells a "Filipino Kibungan", saying that "a local Filipino grower offered us" the seeds for their reproduction and preservation.[76]

Preparations and consumption

Zarco describes the marijuana of the 1950s as dried flowering tops and leaves mixed with tobacco and rolled into cigarettes.[7] Tan, quoting a study of 1981, gives "marijuana with cough syrup" as the most common single pattern of drug use in the country.[56] Customs officers intercepted marijuana from Thailand in balikbayan boxes in 2024 and marijuana leaves and oil from Canada in 2025.[77][78]

In the Dangerous Drugs Board's national household survey of 2019, which interviewed 9,341 people aged 10 to 69, 5.8 percent had used a dangerous drug at some time; of these lifetime users, 57 percent had tried marijuana and 35 percent shabu.[79] The board reported in 2025 that prevalence had fallen to 1.71 percent in the 2023 survey, with marijuana still "the most used substance".[80] In the board's statistics on admissions to treatment and rehabilitation centres, cannabis ranks second to methamphetamine, reported by 27.86 percent of admissions in 2002 and 21.84 percent in 2025.[81][82]

Religious and cultural use

Main article: Cannabis in Philippine culture

In Filipino the colloquial name for marijuana is damó, whose first sense is grass.[83] Tan suggested that the general term bawal na gamot (forbidden drugs) derives from the legal category of prohibited drugs. Tan also observed that a person taking marijuana was "usually perceived as an 'addict' who turns to crime to support this habit".[56] The 1972 film Nardong Putik, directed by Tony Cayado, was based on the case of the bandit Leonardo Manecio, who protected a marijuana plantation in Imus, Cavite, and shared its sales with the owner.[58][84]

In December 2018 Duterte joked that he took marijuana to stay awake; the Inquirer noted that he had openly supported medical marijuana.[85] In March 2019 he told a campaign rally in Victorias City, Negros Occidental, that legalisation might lead to more marijuana plantations: "Not in my time. Some other president maybe."[86]

Trade and commerce

The State Department reported in 2002 local estimates that marijuana sales generated about $900 million a year.[87] The 2003 edition reported that most of the crop was consumed locally, "with the remainder smuggled out to Australia, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan and Europe".[25] The 1990 report took the seizure of two tons of Philippine marijuana in California in October 1989 as indicating "a potential for exporting an increased volume of local marijuana".[11] In 1993 the National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee described the country as "a major source of marijuana for Australian, Japanese, and U.S. consumers".[88] Within the country the 1990 report described private ships "loaded with marijuana in the Visayas, with final destinations outside of the region".[11] The 2008 report named Region I (Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and La Union) as "the primary area for export of marijuana".[89] Cordillera police said in 2024 that some buyers came to Tinglayan posing as tourists.[22]

Eradicated plants are valued at an "estimated standard drug price": the Kibungan plants of early 2026 at PHP 495,310,000.[19] A 2003 board regulation set the reward for informants at two percent of the board's value of the destroyed crops, up to PHP 500,000.[90]

Main article: Cannabis law in the Philippines
A vertical timeline from 1907 to 2026 with twelve dated markers, from the 1907 labelling law and the 1953 prohibition to the Dangerous Drugs Acts of 1972 and 2002, with open markers for the medical cannabis bills of 2019, 2024 and 2026.
Statutes and measures governing cannabis in the Philippines, 1907–2026.

The plant in law

The 2002 act defines cannabis, "commonly known as 'Marijuana' or 'Indian Hemp'", to embrace every kind of Cannabis sativa "and all its geographic varieties, whether as a reefer, resin, extract, tincture or in any form whatsoever". It lists as dangerous drugs the substances in the schedules of the international drug conventions.[1] The Philippines ratified the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs on 2 October 1967, acceded to the Convention on Psychotropic Substances on 7 June 1974 and ratified the 1988 trafficking convention on 7 June 1996.[91][92][93] When the Commission on Narcotic Drugs voted on 2 December 2020 to remove cannabis from Schedule IV of the Single Convention, the Philippines was represented by an observer and was one of 29 states in a joint statement delivered by the Russian Federation.[94][95]

Cultivation, sale and possession

Planting or cultivating marijuana "regardless of quantity" carries life imprisonment to death and a fine of PHP 500,000 to 10 million. The land and any greenhouse used are forfeited to the state unless the owner proves lack of knowledge despite due diligence. The maximum penalty applies where the land is public and to anyone who organises or finances the cultivation.[1] Selling any quantity carries life imprisonment to death and the same fine, as does possession of at least 500 grams of marijuana or 10 grams of resin or resin oil. Possession of 300 to 499 grams carries 20 years and one day to life imprisonment; possession of less than 300 grams carries 12 years and one day to 20 years. A person who tests positive for use faces a minimum of six months' rehabilitation in a government centre for a first offence.[1] Republic Act No. 9346 of 2006 prohibited the death penalty and substituted life imprisonment where a law does not use the penalty terms of the Revised Penal Code,[96] so that the penalty for selling dangerous drugs became life imprisonment and a fine.[97]

The act's ban on plea bargaining was declared unconstitutional in 2017.[98] Under the Supreme Court's framework a charge of selling 0.01 to 9.99 grams of marijuana may be resolved by a plea to the lesser offence of possessing drug paraphernalia.[99] Republic Act No. 10640 of 2014 reduced the witnesses required at the inventory of seized drugs and plants from three to two.[100] In February 2025 the Supreme Court, sitting en banc, acquitted a man caught cultivating marijuana in Kibungan in 2011 because the officers had not followed these custody rules for the seized plants.[101]

Medical access

From 1992 an administrative order of the Department of Health allowed patients with AIDS, cancer or other life-threatening conditions to obtain a compassionate special permit from the Food and Drug Administration for unregistered medicines such as cannabis oil, on the prescription of a doctor holding a licence from the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency.[102] In February 2020 the Dangerous Drugs Board approved in principle the use of cannabidiol for severe forms of epilepsy.[103] Its Board Regulation No. 3 of September 2020 moved cannabidiol products with no more than 0.1 percent tetrahydrocannabinol from Schedules 1 and 2 of the Philippine schedule to Schedule 4. Only physicians with a dangerous-drugs licence who belong to neurology specialty societies may prescribe them. Patients obtain them through a compassionate special permit from the Food and Drug Administration.[2] In December 2022 the board told a Senate hearing that it was open to the medical use of cannabis and had formed a technical working group to evaluate cannabidiol.[104] A new Department of Health order on compassionate special permits repealed the 1992 order and took effect on 10 December 2025.[105][106]

Bills in Congress

A medical cannabis bill, House Bill 4477 of 2014 by Representative Rodolfo Albano III, was referred to the House Committee on Health.[107] In the next Congress the Philippine Compassionate Medical Cannabis Act (House Bill 6517) passed third reading on 29 January 2019 by 163 votes to 5 with 3 abstentions but remained in committee after its referral to the Senate on 4 February 2019.[3] In the 19th Congress the Senate's Cannabis Medicalization Act (Senate Bill 2573) gained a committee report signed by 13 senators,[108] was sponsored in plenary by Senator Robinhood Padilla on 20 March 2024[109] and ended the Congress pending second reading.[4][110] The House approved the Access to Medical Cannabis Act (House Bill 10439), which consolidated ten bills including one to remove cannabis from the list of dangerous drugs, on third reading on 30 July 2024 by 177 votes to 9 with 9 abstentions.[111][112] Its text allowed cultivation only "in a closed-locked facility".[113] The Philippine Medical Association opposed the bill. The Department of Health said that it did not support the cultivation of cannabis plants or the manufacture of cannabis products.[114][115]

In the 20th Congress the House Committees on Dangerous Drugs and on Health approved a consolidated medical cannabis bill on 24 February 2026. Under the bill cannabis would stay on the list of dangerous drugs and be available only in pharmaceutical forms such as oil and capsules, with a Medical Cannabis Office in the Department of Health overseeing licences.[116] At the hearing the Dangerous Drugs Board, the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency and the Philippine National Police supported the measure while calling for strict safeguards.[117] Padilla refiled his Senate bill as Senate Bill 15.[118]

Enforcement and eradication

Main article: Eradication campaigns in the Philippines

The 2002 act charges the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency to "Conduct eradication programs to destroy wild or illegal growth of plants from which dangerous drugs may be extracted".[1] Eradication is done by hand. The State Department reported in 2010 that it "is always carried out manually, rather than by aerial application of chemicals".[9] In 2007 it reported that the agencies lacked "fuel for helicopters necessary to access remote sites in the mountains of Luzon and Mindanao".[26] Units of the Armed Forces of the Philippines joined eradication operations in 2002.[25] In 2020 the Cordillera police director described the region as "the majority of the source of marijuana". In the same year a mayor proposed using chemicals to stop the plants from regrowing.[119]

Named operations include OPLAN Greenchill in Tinglayan in 2016,[10] the Cordillera police's Oplan Herodotus in Benguet, Kalinga and Mountain Province in 2021[120] and the Benguet police operation "Ultimate Grass Cutter" in Kibungan, Kapangan and Bakun in 2026, which the Dangerous Drugs Board paired with proposals for livelihood, tourism and infrastructure support.[19][121]

Eradication reported by year
Year Reported result Reported by
1987 over 10 million plants destroyed State Department[71]
2001 about 8.3 million plants and seedlings State Department[87]
2002 865,768 plants, 71,381 seedlings and 150 grams of seeds State Department[25]
2003 4,690,000 plants and seedlings State Department[122]
2008 4.8 million plants and seedlings State Department[8]
2010 (January to November) 17,104,052 plants including seedlings State Department[23]
2011 (January to October) 4,789,146 plants and seedlings and 818 kilograms of marijuana State Department[123]
2016 24,635,153 plants on 337 sites covering 84 hectares Dangerous Drugs Board[10]
Philippines: cannabis eradication map

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki:

Region
Cordillera Central

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki:

Growing AreaHas growing region
KibunganCordillera Central
SadangaCordillera Central
SantolCordillera Central
TinglayanCordillera Central

Accessions

Accession IDNameMethodHolderCollectedArea
Barthe 1 (s.d.)Barthe 1 herbarium specimen, Philippines (s.d.)Herbarium specimen
KHA-PHL-UNK-0120210001Filipino Kibungan 2021SeedsKhalifa GeneticsKibungan
PHY-PHL-UNK-0120160001CRT-1115 Kalinga Philippines 2016Tissue samplePhylos Bioscience
TLT-PHL-BEN-0120220001Kibungan 2022SeedsThe Landrace TeamKibungan
TLT-PHL-CEB-0120220001Lagkitan 2022SeedsThe Landrace Team
TLT-PHL-KAL-0120190001Kalinga 2019SeedsThe Landrace Team
TLT-PHL-KAL-0120220001Buscalan Kalinga 2022SeedsThe Landrace TeamTinglayan
TLT-PHL-KAL-0120220002Violeta Kalinga 2022SeedsThe Landrace TeamTinglayan
TLT-PHL-UNK-0120220001Baguio Gold 2022SeedsThe Landrace Team

Conservation status

The Paris herbarium sheet is undated in its catalogue.[44] The Phylos Bioscience sample is identified as "Kalinga_Philippines".[74] The Tinoc survey of 2011 deposited herbarium replicates of the plants it studied at the Northern Luzon University Herbarium and at the student herbarium of the Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños.[30] Government policy is directed at ending cultivation. The Dangerous Drugs Board's alternative-development work aims at "reducing and eliminating the illicit cultivation of marijuana".[124] In 2026 the board asked the Cordillera Regional Peace and Order Council to "sustain and institutionalize eradication efforts" in Kibungan, Kapangan and Bakun.[19]

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News:2026-10-01/Eradication/police-uproot-and-burn-about-2-500-cannabis-seedlings-at-sitio-lubban-in-kayapa-bakunBenguetEradication
News:2026-09-27/Eradication/police-and-pdea-uproot-and-burn-about-3-000-marijuana-plants-at-licungan-in-sugpon-on-the-benguet-boundaryIlocos SurEradication
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References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 An Act Instituting the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, Repealing Republic Act No. 6425, Otherwise Known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972, as Amended, Providing Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes(Republic Act No. 9165), 7 June 2002.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Dangerous Drugs Board (24 September 2020). Board Regulation No. 3, Series of 2020: Placing Drug Products Containing Cannabidiol (CBD) with No More Than 0.1 Percent Tetrahydrocannabinol in Schedule 4 of the Philippine Schedule (PDF) (Report). Quezon City: Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "House Bill No. 6517, 17th Congress of the Republic". Legislative Digital Resources. Senate of the Philippines, Legislative Reference Bureau. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Senate Bill No. 2573, 19th Congress". Legislative Digital Resources. Senate of the Philippines, Legislative Reference Bureau. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 An Act for Preventing the Manufacture, Sale, or Transportation of Adulterated or Misbranded or Poisonous or Deleterious Foods, Drugs, Medicines, and Liquors, and for Regulating Traffic Therein, and for Other Purposes(Act No. 1655), 18 May 1907, section 8.Philippine Islands.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 An Act to Amend Sections Three Hundred and Thirty-Nine and Three Hundred and Fifty-Six of Commonwealth Act Numbered Four Hundred and Sixty-Six, Otherwise Known as the National Internal Revenue Code, as Amended(Republic Act No. 887), 19 June 1953.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Zarco, R.M. (1995). "A short history of narcotic drug addiction in the Philippines, 1521–1959" (PDF). Philippine Sociological Review. 43 (1–4): 1–15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2009). "Country Reports: Moldova through Singapore". 2009 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) (Report). Vol. I. United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2010). "Country Reports: Moldova through Singapore". 2010 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) (Report). Vol. I. United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Dangerous Drugs Board (2016). Dimaculangan, E.M.L. (ed.). Annual Report 2016 (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Bureau of International Narcotics Matters (March 1990). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. pp. 314–317. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  12. ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2005). "Southeast Asia". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  13. ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. "Southeast Asia and the Pacific". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 1999 (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Creating a Cordillera Administrative Region, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes(Executive Order No. 220), 15 July 1987.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  15. ↑ An Act Converting the Sub-Provinces of Kalinga and Apayao into Regular Provinces to Be Known as the Province of Kalinga and the Province of Apayao, Amending for the Purpose Republic Act No. 4695(Republic Act No. 7878), 14 February 1995.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Cadiogan, A.T. (2016). "Unraveling identities: Igorotness and "Igorotak" T-shirts" (PDF). The Cordillera Review: Journal of Philippine Culture and Society. 6 (1): 80–99. doi:10.64743/GDPT5258. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  17. ↑ "DDB recognizes PRO CAR's historic ₱228M marijuana eradication in Mt. Chumanchil, Kalinga". Dangerous Drugs Board. 27 May 2026. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "People of the Philippines v. Ricardo Alunday, G.R. No. 181546". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 3 September 2008. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Dangerous Drugs Board (2026). Board Resolution No. 6, Series of 2026: A Resolution Requesting the Cordillera Regional Peace and Order Council for Support for the Sustainability of Marijuana Eradication Efforts in the Municipalities of Kibungan, Kapangan and Bakun in the Province of Benguet (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Dumlao, A. (23 May 2005). "CAR cops torch P220-M marijuana plants in Ifugao". Philstar.com. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Albano, A. (2025). "From rice to vegetable terraces: agricultural transition and sustainability in western Ifugao, Philippines". Southeast Asian Studies. 14 (1): 37–65. doi:10.20495/seas.14.1_37.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Cabreza, V. (4 August 2024). "Cordillera cops eye 'survey' in drives vs marijuana plantations". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2011). 2011 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) (Report). Vol. I. United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  24. ↑ Ricalde, A.L. (28 January 2010). "Livelyhood projects set for marijuana farmers". SunStar. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2003). "Southeast Asia and the Pacific". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2007). "Southeast Asia". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  27. ↑ Declaring as Official the Population Count of the Philippines by Province, City/Municipality and Barangay Based on the 2020 Census of Population and Housing Conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority(Proclamation No. 1179), 6 July 2021.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  28. ↑ Dumlao, A. (9 August 2020). "PDEA: Raided plantations disprove marijuana grows naturally in Cordillera". Philstar.com. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Cabalza, D. (26 March 2022). "PDEA: Pot, not meth, now 'dominant drug'". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Balangcod, T.D.; Balangcod, A.K.D. (2011). "Ethnomedical knowledge of plants and healthcare practices among the Kalanguya tribe in Tinoc, Ifugao, Luzon, Philippines" (PDF). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 10 (2): 227–238. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  31. ↑ "People of the Philippines v. Ballagan, G.R. No. 88278". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 23 August 1995. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  32. ↑ Edwards, H.T.; Saleeby, M.M. (1910). Abacá (Manila hemp) (PDF). Farmers' Bulletin No. 12 (revised edition). Manila: Bureau of Printing. p. 9. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  33. ↑ Noceda, J. de; Sanlúcar, P. de (1754). Vocabulario de la lengua tagala, trabaxado por varios sugetos doctos, y graves, y ultimamente añadido, corregido, y coordinado (PDF) (in español). Manila: Imprenta de la Compañía de Jesús. pp. 1, 18. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  34. ↑ Carro, A., ed. (1849). Vocabulario de la lengua ilocana (PDF) (in español). Manila: Establecimiento Tipográfico del Colegio de Santo Tomás. p. 1. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  35. ↑ "DDB History". Dangerous Drugs Board. 26 August 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  36. ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. "Southeast Asia". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 1998 (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  37. ↑ "Agri secretary initiates switch from marijuana to coffee farming". SunStar. 16 May 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  38. ↑ Dangerous Drugs Board (2026). Board Resolution No. 5, Series of 2026: A Resolution Requesting for the Support of the Regional Development Council Cordillera Administrative Region for the Infrastructure Requirements of the Municipalities of Kibungan, Kapangan, and Bakun as Alternative Development Sites Following Successful Marijuana Eradication Activities (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  39. ↑ Blanco, M. (1878). Flora de Filipinas (PDF) (in español). Vol. 2 (Gran edición ed.). Manila: Plana y Cª. pp. 345–346. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  40. ↑ Merrill, E.D. (April 1905). A review of the identifications of the species described in Blanco's Flora de Filipinas (PDF). Bureau of Government Laboratories Publication No. 27. Manila: Bureau of Public Printing. p. 23. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  41. ↑ Blanco, M. (1837). Flora de Filipinas, según el sistema sexual de Linneo (in español). Manila: Imprenta de Sto. Thomas. pp. 246–250.
  42. ↑ Artigas y Cuerva, M. (1922). "Bibliographical notes on Philippine agriculture, prefaced by a historical sketch" (PDF). The Philippine Agricultural Review. 15 (1): 5. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  43. ↑ "Expediente sobre dirección de siembras de lino y cáñamo de Fernando Avilés". PARES: Portal de Archivos Españoles (in español). Ministerio de Cultura. Archivo General de Indias, FILIPINAS,690,N.3. Retrieved 4 October 2026.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Occurrence 731718299: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Gamella, J.F.; Martín, E. (1992). "Las rentas de Anfión: el monopolio español del opio en Filipinas (1844–1898) y su rechazo por la administración norteamericana". Revista de Indias (in español). 52 (194): 61–106. doi:10.3989/revindias.1992.i194.1180.
  46. ↑ The Internal Revenue Law of 1914(Act No. 2339), 27 February 1914, section 135.Philippine Islands.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  47. ↑ An Act Revising the Penal Code and Other Penal Laws(Act No. 3815), 8 December 1930, article 190.Philippine Islands.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  48. ↑ Palmer, D.B. (May 1914). "A new method of producing anesthesia" (PDF). The Philippine Agricultural Review. 7 (5): 242. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  49. ↑ Bureau of Agriculture (1919). "Seventeenth annual report of the Bureau of Agriculture" (PDF). The Philippine Agricultural Review. 12 (2): 43. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  50. ↑ "Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress December 3, 1912, Document 307". Office of the Historian. United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  51. ↑ "Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, With the Annual Message of the President Transmitted to Congress December 3, 1912, Document 305". Office of the Historian. United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2008). A Century of International Drug Control (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 50–55. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  53. ↑ Narcotic Drugs Law(Republic Act No. 953), 20 June 1953, section 15.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  54. ↑ An Act Amending Article One Hundred and Ninety of the Revised Penal Code, so as to Include Marihuana and Similar Drugs Among the Prohibited Drugs(Republic Act No. 2060), 13 June 1958.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  55. ↑ Goduco-Auglar, C. (1972). "A note on drug abuse in the Philippines". Bulletin on Narcotics (2). United Nations: 43–44. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Tan, M.L. (1995). "The construction of "drug abuse" in the Philippines: the case of cough preparations" (PDF). Philippine Sociological Review. 43 (1–4): 17–42. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  57. ↑ The Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972(Republic Act No. 6425), 30 March 1972.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Lasco, G.; Yu, V.G. (2023). "Drugs and the Marcos dictatorship: the beginnings of the Philippines' punitive drug regime (1970–1975)". Journal of Illicit Economies and Development. 5 (2): 42–53. doi:10.31389/jied.210.
  59. ↑ Amending Paragraph (i), Section 2 of Republic Act Numbered Sixty-Four Hundred and Twenty-Five, Otherwise Known as the "Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972", as Amended(Presidential Decree No. 1708), 8 August 1980.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  60. ↑ Amending Further Section 4 of Republic Act No. 6425, as Amended, Otherwise Known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972(Presidential Decree No. 1675), 17 February 1980.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  61. ↑ Amending Certain Sections of Republic Act No. 6425, as Amended, Otherwise Known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972 and for Other Purposes(Presidential Decree No. 1683), 14 March 1980.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  62. ↑ An Act Further Amending Certain Sections of Republic Act Numbered Sixty-Four Hundred and Twenty-Five, Otherwise Known as the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes(Batas Pambansa No. 179), 2 March 1982.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  63. ↑ An Act to Impose the Death Penalty on Certain Heinous Crimes, Amending for That Purpose the Revised Penal Code, as Amended, Other Special Penal Laws, and for Other Purposes(Republic Act No. 7659), 13 December 1993, sections 13 and 17.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  64. ↑ Amnesty International (2017). "If you are poor, you are killed": extrajudicial executions in the Philippines' "war on drugs" (PDF) (Report). London: Amnesty International. ASA 35/5517/2017. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  65. ↑ Dangerous Drugs Board (2022). The Philippine Anti-Illegal Drugs Strategy 2018–2022 Term-End Report (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  66. ↑ Lasco, G.; Yu, V.G. (2021). ""Shabu is different": extrajudicial killings, death penalty, and "methamphetamine exceptionalism" in the Philippines". International Journal of Drug Policy. 92 103168. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103168.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Lasco, G. (2026). "Antecedents to Rodrigo Duterte's drug war: the anti-drug campaigns of Joseph Estrada (2000) and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2003)". Southeast Asian Studies. 15 (2): 217–241. doi:10.20495/seas.26007.
  68. ↑ "DILG to launch BIDA program vs illegal drugs, calls on public to be "BIDA advocates"". Department of the Interior and Local Government, Region IV-A. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  69. ↑ Romero, A. (23 July 2024). "Marcos touts 'bloodless' drug war, no 'extermination'". Philstar.com. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  70. ↑ National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (April 1988). The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States: The NNICC Report 1987 (PDF) (Report). p. 21. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Bureau of International Narcotics Matters (1 March 1988). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. p. 41. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  72. ↑ "Zanoria v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 110163". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 15 December 1997. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  73. ↑ Madrazo, V.K.F. (9 August 2016). "P1-billion marijuana seized in Kalinga". SunStar. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 "BioSample SAMN05938241: CRT-1115_Kalinga_Philippines". BioSample. National Center for Biotechnology Information. 24 October 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  75. ↑ "Kalinga". The Landrace Team. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  76. ↑ "Filipino Kibungan". Khalifa Genetics. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
  77. ↑ Lalu, G.P. (28 February 2024). "Customs: P76 M marijuana from Thailand seized". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  78. ↑ Lalu, G.P. (10 March 2025). "Balikbayan boxes yield P29-M worth of marijuana leaves, oil". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  79. ↑ Dangerous Drugs Board (2020). 2019 National Household Survey on the Patterns and Trends of Drug Abuse (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  80. ↑ "DDB reports decline in drug users, outlines rehabilitation and prevention priorities to Congress". Dangerous Drugs Board. 13 August 2025. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  81. ↑ "2002 Statistical Analysis". Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  82. ↑ "2025 Statistical Analysis". Dangerous Drugs Board. 23 June 2026. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  83. ↑ "damó". KWF Diksiyonaryo ng Wikang Filipino (in Tagalog). Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  84. ↑ "People of the Philippines v. Jimenez, G.R. Nos. L-36613-14". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 24 July 1981. Retrieved 4 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  85. ↑ Avendaño, C.O.; Aurelio, J.M. (4 December 2018). "Another Duterte joke: I'm taking marijuana to stay awake". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  86. ↑ Lopez, V. (8 March 2019). "Duterte reverses self, won't push for legalization of medical marijuana". GMA News Online. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2002). "Southeast Asia and the Pacific". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  88. ↑ National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee. The NNICC Report 1993: The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States (PDF) (Report). p. 67. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  89. ↑ Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2008). "Southeast Asia". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  90. ↑ Dangerous Drugs Board (18 July 2003). Board Regulation No. 5, Series of 2003: Guidelines in the Implementation of Operation "Private Eye" (PDF) (Report). Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  91. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  92. ↑ "Convention on Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 16. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  93. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 19. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  94. ↑ "CND votes on recommendations for cannabis and cannabis-related substances" (PDF) (Press release). Vienna: Commission on Narcotic Drugs. 2 December 2020 – via United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
  95. ↑ Commission on Narcotic Drugs (2020). Report on the reconvened sixty-third session (2–4 December 2020) (PDF) (Report). United Nations. E/2020/28/Add.1–E/CN.7/2020/15/Add.1. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  96. ↑ An Act Prohibiting the Imposition of Death Penalty in the Philippines(Republic Act No. 9346), 24 June 2006.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  97. ↑ "People of the Philippines v. Reyman Endaya y Laig, G.R. No. 205741". Supreme Court E-Library. Supreme Court of the Philippines. 23 July 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  98. ↑ "Estipona v. Lobrigo, G.R. No. 226679". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 15 August 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  99. ↑ "People of the Philippines v. Montierro, G.R. No. 254564". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 26 July 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  100. ↑ An Act to Further Strengthen the Anti-Drug Campaign of the Government, Amending for the Purpose Section 21 of Republic Act No. 9165, Otherwise Known as the "Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002"(Republic Act No. 10640), 15 July 2014.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  101. ↑ "People of the Philippines v. Acdang, G.R. No. 263341". Supreme Court of the Philippines. 4 February 2025. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via The LawPhil Project.
  102. ↑ Layug, M.C. (19 December 2018). "Special permits for medical marijuana issued by FDA". GMA News Online. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  103. ↑ Concepcion, P. (16 February 2020). "Dangerous Drugs Board OKs cannabis use for epilepsy". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  104. ↑ Felipe, C.S. (14 December 2022). "Dangerous Drugs Board open to medical use of cannabis". Philstar.com. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  105. ↑ Department of Health (2025). Administrative Order No. 2025-0024: Guidelines in Availing Compassionate Special Permit for the Restricted Use of Covered Pharmaceutical Products and Medical Devices for Human Use (PDF) (Report). Department of Health. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  106. ↑ "FDA Advisory No. 2025-1647: Effectivity of Administrative Order No. 2025-0024". Food and Drug Administration Philippines. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  107. ↑ "House Bill No. 4477, 16th Congress of the Republic". Legislative Digital Resources. Senate of the Philippines, Legislative Reference Bureau. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  108. ↑ Bordey, H. (28 February 2024). "Medical marijuana bill one step closer to Senate plenary debates". GMA News Online. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  109. ↑ Bordey, H. (20 March 2024). "Bill legalizing medical marijuana reaches Senate plenary". GMA News Online. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  110. ↑ Porcalla, D. (14 July 2025). "'Medical cannabis bill has fighting chance in 20th Congress'". Philstar.com. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  111. ↑ House of Representatives Committees on Dangerous Drugs, Health and Appropriations (21 May 2024). Committee Report No. 1088 on House Bill No. 10439 (PDF) (Report). House of Representatives of the Philippines. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  112. ↑ Lalu, G.P. (30 July 2024). "House OKs bill allowing access to medicinal cannabis on 3rd reading". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  113. ↑ House of Representatives (2024). House Bill No. 10439: An Act Providing Right of Access to Medical Cannabis, Establishing the Medical Cannabis Office and Providing Funds Therefor (PDF) (Third reading copy). House of Representatives of the Philippines. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  114. ↑ Andrade, J.I. (31 July 2024). "House approves proposed Medical Cannabis Act". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  115. ↑ Cabalza, D. (14 February 2024). "DOH: Law on medical marijuana must be science-based". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  116. ↑ Murcia, A. (24 February 2026). "House panels revive medical cannabis bill". Daily Tribune. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  117. ↑ de la Cruz, J.M.N. (24 February 2026). "House panels OK bill to legalize medical cannabis, emphasizing strict regulations and patient access". BusinessMirror. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  118. ↑ Baron, G. (20 December 2025). "Padilla pushes tighter medical cannabis rules". Daily Tribune. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  119. ↑ Llanes, J. (21 February 2020). "Aggressive illegal weed eradication in place". SunStar. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  120. ↑ Dalizon, A.P. (28 September 2021). "CAR PNP's 'Oplan Herodotus' net nearly P500M marijuana". People's Journal. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  121. ↑ "DDB, Benguet PPO, and local governments push alternative livelihoods alongside OPLAN "Ultimate Grasscutter 2026"". Dangerous Drugs Board. 25 May 2026. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  122. ↑ Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2004). "Southeast Asia". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  123. ↑ Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2012). 2012 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) (Report). Vol. I. United States Department of State. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  124. ↑ "Major Programs & Projects". Dangerous Drugs Board. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
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