Turkey
More actions
| Turkey | |
|---|---|
| Türkiye | |
| |
| Cappadocia from the air, near Göreme | |
| Capital | Ankara |
| Continent | Asia |
| Subregion | West Asia |
| Cannabis Status | |
| Legal Status | Illegal (hemp and medical cultivation licensed) |
| Status Since | 2023 |
| Enforcement | Unlicensed plants destroyed; use and trade prosecuted under the Criminal Code |
| Documentation | |
| Growing Regions | 2 |
| Growing Areas | 7 |
| Accessions | 22 |
| Conservation | |
| Populations | none documented yet |
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye) is a country in West Asia and southeastern Europe, spanning Anatolia and East Thrace. Under the Ottoman Empire hemp was a state-managed fibre crop: growing districts near Samsun on the Black Sea coast were tied directly to the Imperial Dockyard in Istanbul. A hemp commissioner made up each year's shortfall from the coast between Kastamonu and Rize.[1] The drug made from the plant, called esrar in Turkish, was first banned by an Ottoman decree of 1723.[2]: 88
The Republic's Law No. 2313 of 1933 on the control of narcotic substances still governs the plant. It forbids growing hemp to make esrar and requires a permit from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry for every other crop.[3] Since a regulation of 31 January 2026, hemp for fibre, seed and stalk may be grown under licence in 21 provinces, while flower and leaf for medical products are grown by or for the state grain board.[4] The police seized 63.1 million cannabis plants in 2025, down from a peak of 157.3 million in 2023.[5]: 56
Geography
Hemp has been grown in three parts of the country. The northern zone runs from Samsun, Sinop and Kastamonu through Taşköprü, Vezirköprü, Amasya, Çorum, Tokat and Yozgat to the coast at Çarşamba, Terme, Ünye, Fatsa, Ordu and Trabzon. A western zone lies around İzmir, Ödemiş, Tire and Burdur, where the crop was grown mostly for fibre and seed. A southeastern zone lies around Urfa, Suruç, Birecik and Malatya. Hemp was grown more heavily on the mild, humid coast and flax inland around Tokat and Yozgat.[1]: 4
A regulation of 1990 allowed hemp in every district of 18 provinces: Amasya, Antalya, Burdur, Çorum, İzmir, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kütahya, Malatya, Ordu, Samsun, Sinop, Tokat, Uşak, Urfa, Yozgat, Rize and Zonguldak.[6] Its successor of 2016 named 19, dropping Urfa and adding Bartın and Karabük.[7] The regulation of 2026 added Konya and Sivas, for 21.[4] In 2019 and 2020 industrial hemp was grown only in Vezirköprü district of Samsun, where the village of Narlısaray produced fibre, seed and peeled stalk (kıtık).[8]: 37, 42
Demographics
Communities with cannabis relationships
Gezer traces the arrival of esrar in Anatolia to a religious community of Middle Eastern origin and leaves open whether it was the babas who came with the first Turkmens, the Haydaris (disciples of Qutb ad-Din Haydar, by tradition the discoverer of esrar) or the Qalandars fleeing the Mongol invasion.[2]: 43 The Bektashi order, he writes, was the only non-Sunni order the state recognised from the 16th century and the only one linked directly to the Janissary corps.[2]: 58
Agriculture
Under the Ottomans, rope, cable and cordage for the navy were made from hemp.[8]: 36 The state set up a Hemp Trusteeship (Kendir Emaneti) to oversee the sowing, harvest, transport and export of the crop. It taxed hemp at one bundle in ten.[2]: 80 In the 16th century the districts of Çarşamba, Terme and Fatsa near Samsun were held as ocaklık, assigned directly to the Imperial Dockyard (Tersâne-i Âmire). The Kendir Emini, the hemp commissioner, met the yearly shortfall from the growing districts between Kastamonu and Rize. Sinop, Kastamonu, Taşköprü and Vezirköprü processed the fibre into finished goods.[1]: 1, 4 The traveller Evliya Çelebi called the people of Samsun boatmen and rope-makers and wrote that "all the world's hemp ropes" came from there.[1]: 10
The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew holds ropes from Safranbolu, Rope (Kew EBC 79159), which its Economic Botany Collection files under the plant name Cannabis sativa. M. Nesbitt collected them in 1998 and Mark Nesbitt gave them to Kew in 2006.[9]
Turkey invested in hemp production in the 1940s. The crop then declined: the processing plants ran far below capacity and closed after privatisation, while imported jute replaced hemp fibre.[10]: 134 Until 2004 hemp was produced only in Kütahya, Çorum, Kastamonu and Samsun provinces. The area sown in 2004 was 3,750 decares (375 hectares). In 2005 the seed and fibre crops covered 65 hectares each. By 2014 each covered one hectare.[10]: 133–134
Hemp came back into public debate at a symposium on local government in 2019, which produced a report and action plan for industrial hemp. Among the plan's aims was the breeding and registration of domestic varieties low in THC with high yields of fibre and seed. Seed hemp rose from 5.9 hectares in 2018 to 53.6 hectares in 2019 and fibre hemp from 5.5 to 16 hectares.[10]: 127 Two varieties developed by Ondokuz Mayıs University and the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute, Narlı for fibre and textiles and Vezir for the food and chemical industries, were registered as seed in 2021. Selim Aytaç, director of the university's Hemp Research Institute, said in July 2021 that 4,650 decares (465 hectares) had been sown in 2020 and less than 1,000 decares in 2021.[11]
Cannabis in Turkey
The Turkish name of the plant is kenevir, borrowed from the Modern Greek kannavourion. Its earliest Turkish attestation, before 1400, is a remedy for earache made with "hemp milk".[12] The older Turkic word kendir already names a spun fibre in an Uighur text dated before 1000.[13] Kendir is strictly the fibre drawn from the stalk, but in popular speech it is the more common name for the plant itself.[1]: 1 The regulations call it locally kendir, hint keneviri ("Indian hemp"), çedene or çetene.[6][4]
Esrar, from the Arabic asrār ("secrets"), is the drug.[14] It was the everyday Ottoman word; haşiş, beng and benc were the written ones.[2]: 9 Beng comes from the Persian bang.[15] Haşhaş is the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, not cannabis.[16][2]: 9
History
Ottoman period
The Ottomans counted esrar among the mükeyyifat, the pleasure-giving substances such as tobacco and opium.[2]: 9 The şeyhülislams Ibn Kemal (died 1534), Çivizâde Muhyiddin Mehmed Efendi (died 1547) and Ebussuud Efendi (died 1574) issued fatwas on drugs. Ebussuud, who became şeyhülislam in 1545, criticised a fatwa of Ibn Kemal on the strength of which users held esrar to be lawful. He ruled that eating it for pleasure was forbidden in any amount.[17]: 6–7 The opening of many coffeehouses in Istanbul in the 1550s spread drug use and led the government to new policies.[17]: 6 In Evliya Çelebi's day Istanbul's Tiryaki Çarşısı had a guild of beng sellers, with 16 shops and 60 members.[2]: 84
In 1723 Şeyhülislam Yenişehirli Abdullah Efendi ruled that using and selling haşiş were both forbidden and punishable. A decree followed that banned its purchase, sale and use, ordered seized stocks burned and sent users into exile from Istanbul. Gezer reads the decree as aimed at the Qalandar dervishes, who called the drug gonca ("bud"). The ban was repeated with a wider scope in 1724 and 1725.[2]: 54, 88 In 1765 a man caught selling beng near Bahçekapı was exiled to the fortress of Molova.[2]: 85 In the 1860s, after police found esrar made and sold in Istanbul coffeehouses, the government barred its sale anywhere but pharmacies, on pain of one week to two years in prison and a fine of one to 25 gold mecidiye.[2]: 86
Hemp sowing was banned in 1872, after the Civil Medical Society (Cemiyet-i Tıbbiye-i Mülkiye) told the grand vizier that the plant had little use in medicine and did great harm as an intoxicant. The ban was repeated in 1876 and sent to every province. Sowing went on: villagers of Ereğli in Konya province planted 1,300 dönüm with esrar under the name of kendir. Officials later reported that farmers around İzmir, who had sold esrar leaves to merchants shipping them to Egypt, India and China, had lost that income to Greece, and the state its tithe on it.[2]: 80–81 A Police Regulation of 1913 ordered any esrar house to be raided and closed and its esrar and water pipes confiscated.[2]: 90
Republic
At the Second International Opium Conference in Geneva in 1924–25, Turkey supported the Egyptian delegate Mohamed El Guindy when he proposed bringing cannabis under international control. The Transnational Institute writes that the supporting countries had experience of cannabis or had already banned it, with little or no success.[18]: 10 Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, Sudan, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine had been asked to help Egypt's law enforcement by restricting cultivation and trade.[18]: 11
Law No. 2313, adopted on 12 June 1933 and published in the Official Gazette on 24 June,[3] made the sowing of "Indian hemp" (Hint keneviri) for esrar illegal, together with the preparation, import, export and sale of esrar. Anyone sowing it faced one to six months in prison. The plants were to be destroyed by the police on a joint report of health and agriculture officials.[19] Writing in the UN Bulletin on Narcotics in 1951, J. Bouquet said that Turkey had raised its own hashish production when the Greek supply dried up, until the law of 1933. In that period, he wrote, the hashish seized in Egypt and North Africa was chiefly Turkish, from Istanbul and Bursa.[20]
Turkey acceded to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs on 23 May 1967.[21] Law No. 2236 of 1979 rewrote Article 3 of the 1933 law in terms of kenevir sown exclusively to make esrar. Law No. 3652 of 1990 amended Article 23,[3] and a regulation of the same year made all hemp sowing subject to permission, to prevent the production of narcotics from it.[6] Law No. 7442 of 2023 extended the licence to flower and leaf grown for medical and health products.[3]
Cultivation
Licensed hemp is grown for fibre, seed and stalk in the 21 permitted provinces. Flower and leaf for medical and health products are grown by the state grain board, Toprak Mahsulleri Ofisi (TMO), or under contract with it, at its Afyon Alkaloids Factory, in an organised agricultural zone, or indoors at a site holding a Health Ministry permit, under camera, alarm and guard.[4][3] Growing hemp without a permit, for any purpose, is prohibited.[3]
Bouquet judged in 1951 that the "hashish of Brusa" had always had an excellent reputation among consumers, and that it and opium had been a source of considerable profit for part of the rural population of some Anatolian provinces. Illicit plantations, he thought, probably still existed.[20] Unlicensed cultivation continues: the police seized 42.3 million plants in 2019, 157.3 million in 2023 and 63.1 million in 2025. The number of cases rose from 2,986 in 2019 to 6,218 in 2025.[5]: 56
Landraces and germplasm
A study of 43 hemp genotypes grown at the Hemp Research Institute of Yozgat Bozok University included 12 Turkish landraces and one Turkish-bred cultivar. The Turkish landraces held the most cannabidiol of the set, 0.55 to 8.05 per cent with a mean of 3.26 per cent. The authors called them valuable genetic resources for high CBD. Ninety-two per cent of the genetic variation lay within populations.[22]
The Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research at Gatersleben holds a Turkish accession, CAN 26, collected at a shop in Istanbul.[23] It was regenerated in 2013 and a duplicate is stored in the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.[24] Four Turkish accessions of the Vavilov Institute are listed in the European genebank catalogue.[25]
Turkish seed was grown at the University of Mississippi in the early 1970s. M. W. Quimby gathered herbarium sheets of Turkish lots under codes including MS-SDD in 1970 and 1971.[26] In 1972 Richard Evans Schultes, Timothy Plowman and T. E. Lockwood collected Turkish lots in the university's National Institute of Mental Health garden, among them T A, labelled the "original sample".[27] Ernest Small determined these sheets as Cannabis sativa in 1976. The sheets are kept at Harvard.[27]
Preparations and consumption
Evliya Çelebi wrote that the Istanbul beng sellers spent their days eating it. The 1913 Police Regulation ordered the water pipes of esrar houses seized with the drug.[2]: 84, 90 Bouquet wrote in 1951 that hashish was the oldest known drug in Turkey and, until recent years, the only substance smoked there.[20] The Turkish Language Association's dictionary defines esrar as a substance obtained from Indian hemp with stimulant, intoxicating or narcotic effects depending on the dose. Colloquial names for it include ot, duman, sarıkız, keyif, mal and fino.[28]
Religious and cultural use
Gezer, drawing on Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı, writes that the Qalandar poet Kaygusuz Abdal praised esrar in his poems and was so fond of it that the Bektashis named the drug "Kaygusuz" after him.[2]: 56 From the 17th century, in Gezer's account, some lodges of self-styled Bektashis ceased to be religious houses and became esrar tekkes, the gathering places of users. The decree of 1725 was the first to deal with the use of the drug among Bektashis.[2]: 56–58
Beng also appears in poetry. Fuzûlî's Beng ü Bâde ("Hashish and Wine"), written between 1510 and 1514 and dedicated to Shah Ismail, is an allegory of 444 couplets in which drinks, foods and drugs, among them wine, beng and opium, are personified and debate one another. Its symbolism is disputed: Tahir Olgun read bâde as Shah Ismail and beng as Sultan Bayezid II.[2]: 19
Trade and commerce
Ottoman esrar was traded abroad: farmers around İzmir sold leaves to merchants who carried them to Egypt, India and China.[2]: 81 In the years before 1933, Bouquet wrote, Turkish hashish from Istanbul and Bursa was the main hashish seized in Egypt and North Africa. In Egypt it rivalled Indian charas; both competed with the less valued hashish of Syria and Lebanon.[20] He also called the Republic the highway to the eastern Mediterranean for hashish obtained in Iran.[20]
Hemp products made under the 2026 regulations are sold only in pharmacies. Medical products need a prescription. Supplements may contain at most 0.3 per cent THC.[29]
Legal status
Cannabis is controlled by Law No. 2313 of 1933 and by Articles 188 and 191 of the Criminal Code, Law No. 5237 of 2004. Under Article 23 of Law 2313, growing hemp for fibre, seed and stalk needs the permission of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. So does growing flower and leaf for medical products, health products, non-narcotic personal-care products and supplements. Growing for medical and health products is reserved to the TMO and its contractors, within a quota set by the President. Hemp grown to obtain esrar carries four to 12 years in prison and a judicial fine of 500 to 10,000 days. Growing solely for one's own use carries one to three years. Growing without a permit or beyond the permitted area carries a judicial fine.[3]
Under the Criminal Code, unlicensed manufacture, import or export of narcotics carries 20 to 30 years. Sale, supply or possession for trade carries at least ten years. Buying, accepting or possessing a narcotic for use, and using one, carry two to five years; prosecution is first deferred for five years, with at least one year of probation.[30] The regulations of 31 January 2026 repealed those of 2016 and the regulation of 2024 on hemp for active pharmaceutical ingredients.[4]
Enforcement
Unlicensed plants are destroyed by the police on the order of the senior local administrator, on an agronomist's report.[3] Seizures of esrar (herbal cannabis, resin and skunk) fell from 90.6 tonnes in 2019 and 99.3 tonnes in 2023 to 40.0 tonnes in 2025. Of 80,746 esrar cases recorded in 2025, 67,650 fell under Article 191 of the Criminal Code and 12,911 under Article 188.[5]: 53
Growing Regions
Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki:
| Region |
|---|
| Aegean Region (Turkey) |
| Black Sea Region (Turkey) |
Growing Areas
Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki:
| Growing Area | Has growing region |
|---|---|
| Bursa | |
| Ereğli | |
| Gümüşhacıköy | Black Sea Region (Turkey) |
| Küçük Menderes Valley | Aegean Region (Turkey) |
| Lice | |
| Taşköprü | Black Sea Region (Turkey) |
| Vezirköprü | Black Sea Region (Turkey) |
Accessions
| Accession ID | Name | Collected | Area |
|---|---|---|---|
| NPG-TUR-ANK-0419360001 | Ankara Bazaar General Population 1936 | ||
| NPG-TUR-IST-0018990001 | Constantinople General Population 1899 | ||
| NPG-TUR-KAH-0719360001 | Kahramanmaraş Bazaar General Population 1936 | ||
| NPG-TUR-KAS-1019340001 | Kastamonu Bazaar General Population 1934 | ||
| NPG-TUR-KAS-1019340002 | Kastamonu Agricultural Museum General Population 1934 | ||
| NPG-TUR-KAS-1019360001 | Kastamonu Bazaar General Population 1936 | ||
| NPG-TUR-SAK-1019360001 | Adapazarı Bazaar General Population 1936 | ||
| NPG-TUR-SIV-0819360001 | Sivas Bazaar General Population 1936 | ||
| NPG-TUR-UNK-0020260001 | Turkish Food Store Seeds General Population | ||
| RSC-TUR-UNK-0120190001 | 2019 RSC Turkish Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700001 | 1970 UMS Turkey MS-SDD Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700002 | 1970 UMS Turkey MS-SEE Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700003 | 1970 UMS Turkey MS-SPP Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019700004 | 1970 UMS Turkey MS-SY Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019710001 | 1971 UMS Turkey MS-SFF Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019710002 | 1971 UMS Turkey MS-SGG Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019710003 | 1971 UMS Turkey MS-SHHH Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001 | 1972 UMS Turkey T A Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001-R1 | 1972 UMS Turkey T A1 Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001-R2 | 1972 UMS Turkey T A2 Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720001-R3 | 1972 UMS Turkey T A3 Reproduction | ||
| UMS-TUR-UNK-0019720002 | 1972 UMS Turkey T C Reproduction |
Conservation status
The authors of the Yozgat study found the Turkish gene pool a promising source of new allelic diversity.[22] The national action plan of 2019 set out to breed and register domestic varieties low in THC.[10]: 127 The licensed seed and fibre crops shrank from 375 hectares in all in 2004 to one hectare each in 2014.[10]: 133–134 The Istanbul accession at Gatersleben was regenerated in 2013, with a duplicate at Svalbard.[24]
Recent news
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Taştemir, Mehmet (2003). "Karadeniz Bölgesinde Kendir-Keten Üretimi ve Kullanım Alanları (XV. Yüzyıl Sonu - XVII. Yüzyıl İlk Yarısı)" [Hemp and flax production and uses in the Black Sea region (late 15th to first half of the 17th century)]. Türk Kültürü İncelemeleri Dergisi (in Türkçe) (8): 1–24. doi:10.24058/tki.108.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 Gezer, Onur (2016). Osmanlılarda Keyif Verici Bir Madde: Esrarın Hikayesi [A pleasure-giving substance among the Ottomans: the story of esrar] (MA thesis) (in Türkçe). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Uyuşturucu Maddelerin Murakabesi Hakkında Kanun(Kanun No. 2313), 12 June 1933, arts. 3 and 23 (consolidated text).Turkey.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 "Kenevir Yetiştiriciliği ve Kontrolüne Dair Yönetmelik" [Regulation on hemp cultivation and its control]. Resmî Gazete (in Türkçe). Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı. 31 January 2026. No. 33154. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü, Narkotik Suçlarla Mücadele Başkanlığı (2026). Türkiye Uyuşturucu Raporu: Eğilimler ve Gelişmeler [Turkish drug report: trends and developments] (PDF) (Report) (in Türkçe). T.C. İçişleri Bakanlığı. Yayın No. 2026/3. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Kenevir Ekimi ve Kontrolü Hakkında Yönetmelik" [Regulation on hemp sowing and control] (PDF). Resmî Gazete (in Türkçe). Tarım Orman ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı. 21 October 1990. pp. 27–30. No. 20672. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "Kenevir Yetiştiriciliği ve Kontrolü Hakkında Yönetmelik" [Regulation on hemp cultivation and control]. Resmî Gazete (in Türkçe). Gıda, Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı. 29 September 2016. No. 29842. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Aydoğan, Mehmet; Terzi, Yunus Emre; Gizlenci, Şahin; Acar, Mustafa; Esen, Alpay; Meral, Hüseyin (2020). "Türkiye'de kenevir yetiştiriciliğinin ekonomik olarak yapılabilirliği: Samsun ili Vezirköprü ilçesi örneği" [Economic feasibility of hemp cultivation in Turkey: the case of Vezirköprü district, Samsun province]. Anadolu Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi (in Türkçe). 35 (1): 35–50. doi:10.7161/omuanajas.602585.
- ↑ "Ropes, catalogue number 79159". Economic Botany Collection. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Başer, Uğur; Bozoğlu, Mehmet (2020). "Türkiye'nin Kenevir Politikası ve Piyasasına Bir Bakış" [An overview of Turkey's hemp policy and market]. Tarım Ekonomisi Araştırmaları Dergisi (in Türkçe). 6 (2): 127–135.
- ↑ "Türkiye'nin kenevir tohumları: Vezir ve Narlı" [Turkey's hemp seeds: Vezir and Narlı]. Bloomberg HT (in Türkçe). 11 July 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "kenevir". Nişanyan Sözlük (in Türkçe). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "kendir". Nişanyan Sözlük (in Türkçe). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "sır". Nişanyan Sözlük (in Türkçe). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "beng". Nişanyan Sözlük (in Türkçe). Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "haşhaş". Güncel Türkçe Sözlük (in Türkçe). Türk Dil Kurumu. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Başoğlu, Tuncay (2024). "A Contribution to the Discussions on Drugs and Risāla Writing in Ottoman Society: A Treatise of Maḥmūd al-Fanārī". Hikma. 15 (1): 5–22. doi:10.13109/hikm.2024.15.1.5.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Bewley-Taylor, Dave; Blickman, Tom; Jelsma, Martin (March 2014). "The history of cannabis in the international drug control system" (PDF). The Rise and Decline of Cannabis Prohibition: The history of cannabis in the UN drug control system and options for reform (Report). Amsterdam; Swansea: Transnational Institute; Global Drug Policy Observatory.
- ↑ Uyuşturucu maddelerin murakabesi hakkında kanun(Kanun No. 2313), 12 June 1933, arts. 3 and 23; Resmî Gazete no. 2435, 24 June 1933.Turkey.Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Bouquet, J. (1951). "Cannabis (concluded)". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 22–45.
- ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Alsaleh, Ahmad; Yılmaz, Güngör (2025). "Exploring cannabidiol variations, investigation of genetic diversity, population structure and unveiling male-specific genetic marker in industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.)". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 72 (1): 797–814. doi:10.1007/s10722-024-02015-1.
- ↑ "Occurrence 120968583: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Occurrence 5065076878: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "Occurrence 210168444: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "Cannabis sativa, barcode 01005300". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Cannabis sativa, barcode 01005237". Index of Botanical Specimens. Harvard University Herbaria. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
- ↑ "esrar". Güncel Türkçe Sözlük (in Türkçe). Türk Dil Kurumu. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ "Kenevirden Elde Edilen Ürünlere Dair Yönetmelik" [Regulation on products obtained from hemp]. Resmî Gazete (in Türkçe). Sağlık Bakanlığı. 31 January 2026. No. 33154. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
- ↑ Türk Ceza Kanunu(Kanun No. 5237), 26 September 2004, arts. 188 and 191.Turkey.Retrieved 12 October 2026.