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Timeline of cannabis history

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Part of a series on
History
A map with dashed shaded areas labelled Europe, East Asia, and South and Central Asia, each with its study, above a timeline in years before present with a point at about 12,000 inside a bar from about 15,700 to 6,500, a point at about 4,000 and a band from 7,000 to 5,000.
Regions and dates that published studies give for the domestication of cannabis, in years before present. The long bar is the 95% confidence interval of the genomic date of Ren and colleagues (2021). The shaded areas mark the regions the studies name; the studies give no boundaries.
History of cannabis·Historical sources
Ancient Origins & Early Use

Domestication·Yanghai Tombs·Jirzankal Cemetery·Pazyryk burials·Scythian cannabis use·Centre of origin·Nikolai Vavilov

Historical Texts & Documentation

Atharvaveda·Sushruta Samhita·Shennong Bencaojing·Ibn al-Baytar·Avicenna·Herbarium Amboinense (1690)·Indian Hemp Drugs Commission·Carl Linnaeus·Historical sources

Trade Routes & Dispersal

Cannabis on the Silk Road·Spread of cannabis to South Asia·Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia·Spread of cannabis to Africa·Spread of cannabis to the Americas·Hippie Trail·Yarkand charas trade

Traditional Cultivation History

History of cannabis cultivation·Hemp

History by Country
Americas: Brazil·Chile·Mexico
Preparations & Their Names

Bhang·Charas·Ganja·Hashish·Cannabis product names

Cannabis in Medicine History

Cannabis in Western medicine·Cannabis in traditional Chinese medicine·Cannabis in Ayurveda·Cannabis in Persian medicine·Cannabis tinctures

Prohibition & Drug War History

Cannabis prohibition·War on drugs·Harry J. Anslinger·Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs·Marihuana Tax Act of 1937·International Narcotics Control Board·Eradication campaigns

Cannabis & Colonialism

Cannabis in colonial India·Cannabis in colonial Burma·Cannabis in the Spanish Empire·Bengal Presidency cannabis trade·Colonial hemp trade

Cultural & Social History

Cannabis legalisation movement·Anti-cannabis propaganda·Cannabis in Hinduism·Cannabis in Sufism·Rastafari·Medical cannabis

Historical Varieties & Genetics

Southern hemp·Genetic erosion·Ex situ conservation·Legendary landraces·Local cannabis names

Portal·Category

Timeline of cannabis history lists dated events in the history of cannabis, from fossil pollen and seeds found at excavations to the laws of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In each row are the date, what was found, written or done, the place, and the article that describes the event, with that article's source. Excavation sites, historical sources and laws that have pages of their own are listed in the last table.

Domestication estimates

Main article: Domestication

Where and when cannabis was first domesticated are open questions.[1] The studies below name broad regions and, where they give a date, a range in years before present (BP).

Date Event Place Kind Article
15,728–6,458 BP Domestication estimate for East Asia (Ren et al. 2021)[2]: 1, 3 East Asia Domestication estimate Domestication
c. 4,000 BP Hemp and drug types form (Ren et al. 2021 estimate)[2]: 3–4 Domestication estimate [[Domestication
  1. Genome studies|Domestication]]
7,000–5,000 BP Domestication estimate for Europe (Rull 2022)[1] Europe Domestication estimate [[Domestication
  1. Europe|Domestication]]
no date given South and Central Asia (McPartland and Small 2020)[3]: 81, 86 South Asia and Central Asia Domestication estimate [[Domestication
  1. Hemp and drug types|Domestication]]

Events

Date Event Place Kind Article
32,600 BP Pollen of the genus in a Narmada valley core at Baneta[4]: ESM 1 Baneta Reported find [[Spread of cannabis to South Asia
  1. Native or brought in|Spread of cannabis to South Asia]]
c. 5900–5800 BC Earliest reported cannabis grains from China, at Zhuzhai[5] Zhuzhai Reported find [[China
  1. History|China]]
4600–3500 BP Single cannabis seed reported from Kunal, Haryana[4]: ESM 1 Kunal Reported find [[Spread of cannabis to South Asia
  1. Archaeological finds|Spread of cannabis to South Asia]]
c. 3,800 BP Cannabis/Humulus-type pollen in Drotsky's Cave, Kalahari[6]: 316 Drotsky's Cave Reported find [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. Inland and to the south|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
1400–700 BC Cannabis seeds at Senuwar, Bihar[7] Senuwar Reported find [[History of cannabis
  1. Into South Asia|History of cannabis]]
c. 2nd century Zhang Zhongjing records the cannabis seed pill maziren wan[8] Text written [[Cannabis in traditional Chinese medicine
  1. The seed|Cannabis in traditional Chinese medicine]]
9th century Hemp introduced into Islamic lands, per Hamarneh[9]: 229 Event [[Cannabis on the Silk Road
  1. Hemp and hashish in the Islamic lands|Cannabis on the Silk Road]]
1070 Tujing bencao records the damaren jiu recipe[8] Text written Damaren jiu
12th century North African writers describe psychoactive uses[10]: para. 12 North Africa Text written [[History of cannabis
  1. Into Africa and the Indian Ocean|History of cannabis]]
12th–13th century Ānandakanda devotes a chapter, the vijayākalpa, to the plant[11] Text written [[Tantric cannabis use in India
  1. The alchemical corpus|Tantric cannabis use in India]]
mid-12th century Cannabis planted and used in Egypt under the Ayyubids[12]: 199 Egypt Event [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. Egypt and North Africa|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
c. 1300 Earliest mention of the word ganja known to Grierson[13]: 246–247 Text written [[History of cannabis
  1. Into South Asia|History of cannabis]]
1511–1519 Leo Africanus sees hashish eaten at Tunis and Constantine[14] Tunis and Constantine Event [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. Egypt and North Africa|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
1513 Spanish Crown ships hemp seed to the Indies[15]: 5–6 Event Spread of cannabis to the Americas
1514 Pedrarias Dávila's fleet carries sacks of hemp seed[15]: 5–6 Event [[Cannabis in the Spanish Empire
  1. Seed, farmers and ropemakers from Spain|Cannabis in the Spanish Empire]]
1578 Acosta's chapter on bangue printed at Burgos[16] Burgos Text written [[History of cannabis
  1. Words and texts|History of cannabis]]
1600s Earliest reported writings on the plant south of the Sahara[17]: 17–18 southern Mozambique, Madagascar and South Africa Text written [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. Accounts of the spread|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
17th century Hmong bring textile hemp to the Annamite uplands (Lemarié)[18]: 73 Event [[Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia
  1. Accounts of the arrival|Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia]]
1607 Port-Royal colonists take sheaves of hemp to show in France[19] Port-Royal Event [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. New France|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1619 Virginia assembly orders householders to try hemp seed[20] Jamestown Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. The English colonies|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1658 Van Riebeeck's journal records daccha, of disputed identity[21]: 88–89[22]: 66–68 Cape of Good Hope Text written [[South Africa
  1. History|South Africa]]
1666 Talon has New France settlers sow hemp[23] New France Event [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. New France|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1688 Dampier describes ganga, or bang, at Aceh[24] Aceh Text written [[History of cannabis
  1. Into Southeast Asia|History of cannabis]]
1722 East India Company tries hemp as a fibre crop in Bengal[25] Bengal Event [[Bengal Presidency cannabis trade
  1. Pre-monopoly trade, c.1722–1789|Bengal Presidency cannabis trade]]
1765 Hemp and flax seed sown in Cagayan, Viana reports[26] Cagayan Event [[Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia
  1. The Philippines|Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia]]
1777 Decree orders flax and hemp grown in the Philippines[27][28] Philippines Law or treaty [[History of cannabis in the Philippines
  1. Cáñamo in Spanish colonial sources (to 1898)|History of cannabis in the Philippines]]
1778 A foreman and 12 hemp farmers reach Veracruz[29]: 112 Veracruz Event [[Cannabis in the Spanish Empire
  1. Seed, farmers and ropemakers from Spain|Cannabis in the Spanish Empire]]
1780 Royal flax and hemp factory works in Mexico City[30]: 63 Mexico City Event [[Cannabis in the Spanish Empire
  1. New Spain, 1530s–1800|Cannabis in the Spanish Empire]]
1783 Royal hemp plantation opens at Canguçu, Brazil[31]: 141 Canguçu Event [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. Portuguese Brazil|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1793 Regulation XXXIV licenses the making and sale of hemp drugs[32] Bengal Law or treaty [[Ganja Mahal
  1. Legal basis|Ganja Mahal]]
1795 Hemp orders and seed reach Monterey; trial at San José[33]: 620, 717 Monterey Event [[Cannabis in the Spanish Empire
  1. Alta California, 1795–1812|Cannabis in the Spanish Empire]]
1807 Earliest reported botanical mention of the plant in Jamaica[34]: 14–15 Jamaica Text written [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. Jamaica|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1830 Rio de Janeiro council bans the sale and use of pito do pango[35][36] Rio de Janeiro Law or treaty [[Brazil
  1. History|Brazil]]
after 1838 Indentured labourers from India bring ganja to the Caribbean[37]: 58–59 Caribbean and British Guiana Event Spread of cannabis to the Americas
1839 O'Shaughnessy publishes On the Preparations of the Indian Hemp[38] Calcutta Text written [[Cannabis in colonial India
  1. Hemp in colonial medicine|Cannabis in colonial India]]
1839 Backhouse sees Basotho smoking dakka at Thaba Bosiu[39] Thaba Bosiu Text written [[Lesotho
  1. History|Lesotho]]
1840 Mauritius bans the import, sale and growing of cannabis[40] Port Louis Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. The Mascarenes|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
1845 Labourers from India reach Jamaica; ganja use traced to them[34]: 15–16 Jamaica Event Spread of cannabis to the Americas
1849 Christison grows Indian and common hemp side by side[41]: 29 Edinburgh Event [[Indian hemp
  1. Botanical name|Indian hemp]]
1850 Daniell's paper on Angolan cannabis describes liamba[42] Angola Text written [[Diamba
  1. Early Atlantic records|Diamba]]
1850s Ganja Mahal consolidated around Naogaon, northern Bengal[43][44][45] Naogaon Event Ganja Mahal
1851 Earliest reported mention of cannabis in Sierra Leone[46]: 7, 9 Sierra Leone Event [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. The drug plant and the slave trade|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1854 Mauritius repeals its ban on importing cannabis[40] Mauritius Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. The Mascarenes|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
1856 Act XXI of 1856 consolidates excise law for Lower Bengal[47] Lower Bengal Law or treaty [[Cannabis in colonial India
  1. The Bengal model: duty, licence and vend, 1790–1893|Cannabis in colonial India]]
1861 British Guiana licenses the sale of ganja and bhang[37]: 65 British Guiana Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. Ganja and indentured labour from India|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1866 Dukerley writes on kif and tekrouri from Batna[48] Batna Text written [[Algeria
  1. History|Algeria]]
1868 or 1879 Egypt prohibits cannabis (dated 1868 or 1879)[49]: 5[50] Egypt Law or treaty [[Greece
  1. History|Greece]]
1872 Bellevue hospital report notes a patient smoking gunga[51] Jamaica Text written [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. Jamaica|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1872 Bhang used on Zanzibar is imported from Bombay and Cutch[52] Zanzibar Event [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. The Horn and the East African coast|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
1873–74 British Burma prohibits ganja cultivation and consumption[53] Burma Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia
  1. Burma|Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia]]
1875 Jessore cannabis industry suppressed[25] Jessore Event [[Bengal Presidency cannabis trade
  1. Pre-monopoly trade, c.1722–1789|Bengal Presidency cannabis trade]]
1885 Trinidad lays heavy licence duties on growing ganja[37]: 62, 64, 66 Trinidad Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. Ganja and indentured labour from India|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1890 Greece prohibits the import, growing and use of hashish[54]: 314 Greece Law or treaty [[Greece
  1. History|Greece]]
1891 Commons question on ganja smokers in India's asylums[53] House of Commons Event [[Cannabis in colonial India
  1. From the Commons question to the Commission|Cannabis in colonial India]]
1891 Cape Colony prohibits cannabis under Act 34 of 1891[55] Cape Colony Law or treaty [[South Africa
  1. History|South Africa]]
1894–1899 Trinidad prohibits ganja; the ban is repealed in 1899[37]: 62, 64, 66 Trinidad Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. Ganja and indentured labour from India|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1906 US Pure Food and Drug Act: labels must state cannabis indica[56] United States Law or treaty [[United States
  1. History|United States]]
1912 Hague opium conference advises study of Indian hemp[57] The Hague Law or treaty [[Indian hemp
  1. Drug-control law|Indian hemp]]
1915 California prohibits possession of marihuana[58]: 113 California Law or treaty [[United States
  1. History|United States]]
1915 Madagascar bans the preparation, sale and use of cannabis[59] Madagascar Law or treaty [[Madagascar
  1. History|Madagascar]]
1917 Naogaon growers register a ganja cultivators' cooperative[60][25] Naogaon Event [[Ganja Society
  1. Formation|Ganja Society]]
1920 Mexico prohibits the growing of and trade in marihuana[61] Mexico Law or treaty [[Mexico
  1. History|Mexico]]
1921 Earliest reported hashish production in eastern Algeria[10]: para. 12 eastern Algeria Event [[Spread of cannabis to Africa
  1. Egypt and North Africa|Spread of cannabis to Africa]]
1923 South Africa asks the League of Nations to schedule cannabis[62][63] Event [[South Africa
  1. History|South Africa]]
1924 Egypt's delegate names cannabis sweets at Geneva[64]: 133 Geneva Event [[Cannabis cuisine
  1. Egypt, Morocco and Paris|Cannabis cuisine]]
1924 Governor of Aceh bans planting and selling cannabis[65] Aceh Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia
  1. Sumatra and Aceh|Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia]]
1925 UK Dangerous Drugs Act 1925 brings in Indian hemp controls[66] United Kingdom Law or treaty [[Indian hemp
  1. Drug-control law|Indian hemp]]
1928 South Africa bans unlicensed growing and supply of dagga[67] South Africa Law or treaty [[South Africa
  1. History|South Africa]]
1930 British India passes the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1930[68][69] British India Law or treaty [[Cannabis in colonial India
  1. Trade across the frontier|Cannabis in colonial India]]
1934 Soviet decree bans sowing opium poppy and Indian hemp[70][71] Soviet Union Law or treaty [[Indian hemp
  1. Soviet law|Indian hemp]]
1935 Dahir lets only three tribes grow tobacco and kif[72]: 1071–1073 northern Morocco Law or treaty [[History of cannabis
  1. Trade and control|History of cannabis]]
1935 Thai Cannabis Act forbids planting or keeping cannabis seed[73]: 339–342 Thailand Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia
  1. Thailand|Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia]]
1938 Brazil bans private growing of maconha[74] Brazil Law or treaty [[Brazil
  1. History|Brazil]]
1938 Canada prohibits unauthorised growing of cannabis[75]: 498 Canada Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to the Americas
  1. New France|Spread of cannabis to the Americas]]
1938 Salazar Viniegra publishes "El mito de la marihuana"[76] Mexico Text written [[Mexico
  1. History|Mexico]]
1947 Partition places the whole Ganja Mahal in East Pakistan[25] East Pakistan Event [[Ganja Mahal
  1. Partition and dissolution|Ganja Mahal]]
1951 French decree schedules amba as a poisonous substance[77]: 144 Senegal Law or treaty [[Senegal
  1. History|Senegal]]
1953 Philippines makes Indian hemp a prohibited drug[78][79] Philippines Law or treaty History of cannabis in the Philippines
1955 Royal kram halts all cannabis growing in Cambodia[18]: 66 Cambodia Law or treaty [[Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia
  1. Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam|Spread of cannabis to Southeast Asia]]
1960 Earliest reported cannabis cultivation in Ghana[80] Ghana Event [[Ghana
  1. History|Ghana]]
1966 Indian Hemp Decree of 1966 defines Indian hemp[81] Nigeria Law or treaty [[Indian hemp
  1. Drug-control law|Indian hemp]]
1970s Central Asian landraces brought into Nepal[3]: 84 Nepal Event [[Spread of cannabis to South Asia
  1. Charas from Central Asia|Spread of cannabis to South Asia]]
1989 Licensed sales of Naogaon ganja end[25] Naogaon Event [[Ganja Society
  1. Decline and present status|Ganja Society]]
1996 California adopts the Compassionate Use Act, Proposition 215[82] California Law or treaty [[United States
  1. History|United States]]
2018 Canada's Cannabis Act receives royal assent[83] Canada Law or treaty [[Canada
  1. History|Canada]]
2018 Prince judgment ends South Africa's prohibition era[84][85] South Africa Event [[South Africa
  1. History|South Africa]]

Texts, sites and laws

Excavation sites, historical sources and laws with pages of their own, by the year their page gives:

YearEntryKindPage
-8,280Earliest reported hemp fruits, from a Jōmon layerArchaeological findOkinoshima site (Chiba)
-3,635Hemp DNA in rope and cloth made mainly of flaxArchaeological findChristmas Cave
-1,600Over 800 charred cannabis seeds at a pile-dwelling siteArchaeological findHaimenkou
-89013 female cannabis plants laid over a man like a shroudArchaeological findJiayi Cemetery
-800Burnt cannabis residue in wooden braziers in tombsArchaeological findJirzankal Cemetery
-760Earliest reported cannabis use in the Near East, on an altarArchaeological findTel Arad
-750789 g of cannabis beside a man in tomb M90Archaeological findYanghai Tombs
-530Hemp-bast fabrics padding a bronze couchArchaeological findHochdorf Chieftain's Grave
-300Charred hemp seeds in censers; hemp-stalk mats in gravesArchaeological findGlinoe barrow cemetery
-300Charred hemp seed and hot stones in copper vesselsArchaeological findPazyryk burials
-165Over 120,000 cannabis fruits in two Han tombsArchaeological findLaoguanshan Cemetery
-150Earliest reported hemp seeds in FranceArchaeological findAl Poux
-59Hemp fruits in the grain store of the Marquis of HaihunArchaeological findHaihun Marquis cemetery
315Δ6-THC in burnt material with a girl who died in childbirthArchaeological findBeit Shemesh family tomb
658Hemp fruits in a tomb and a hemp-fibre horse tailArchaeological findAstana Cemetery
691Hemp among the grain in silk bags in Murong Zhi's tombArchaeological findChashancun Cemetery
1,240Cannabis residue in two water-pipe bowlsArchaeological findLalibela Cave
1,961Single Convention adopted in New YorkLaw or treatySingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs
1,971Convention on Psychotropic Substances adopted in ViennaLaw or treatyConvention on Psychotropic Substances
1,985India's NDPS Act receives the President's assentLaw or treatyNarcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985
1,988UN convention against illicit drug traffic adopted in ViennaLaw or treatyUnited Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Rull, Valentí (2022). "Origin, early expansion, domestication and anthropogenic diffusion of Cannabis, with emphasis on Europe and the Iberian Peninsula". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 55 125670. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2022.125670.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ren, G.; Zhang, X.; Li, Y.; Ridout, K.; Serrano-Serrano, M.L.; Yang, Y.; Liu, A.; Ravikanth, G.; Nawaz, M.A.; Mumtaz, A.S.; Salamin, N.; Fumagalli, L. (2021). "Large-scale whole-genome resequencing unravels the domestication history of Cannabis sativa". Science Advances. 7 (29) eabg2286. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg2286.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144: 81–112. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 McPartland, J.M.; Hegman, W.; Long, T. (2019). "Cannabis in Asia: its center of origin and early cultivation, based on a synthesis of subfossil pollen and archaeobotanical studies". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 28 (6): 691–702. doi:10.1007/s00334-019-00731-8.
  5. ↑ Dal Martello, Rita; Min, Rui; Stevens, Chris J.; Qin, Ling; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2024). "Morphometric approaches to Cannabis evolution and differentiation from archaeological sites: interpreting the archaeobotanical evidence from bronze age Haimenkou, Yunnan". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 33 (4): 503–518. doi:10.1007/s00334-023-00966-6.
  6. ↑ Merlin, M. D. (2003). "Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World". Economic Botany. 57 (3): 295–323. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:AEFTTO]2.0.CO;2.
  7. ↑ Stevens, Chris J.; Murphy, Charlene; Roberts, Rebecca; Lucas, Leilani; Silva, Fabio; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2016). "Between China and South Asia: a Middle Asian corridor of crop dispersal and agricultural innovation in the Bronze Age". The Holocene. 26 (10): 1541–1555. doi:10.1177/0959683616650268. PMC 5125436.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Brand, E. Joseph; Zhao, Zhongzhen (2017). "Cannabis in Chinese medicine: are some traditional indications referenced in ancient literature related to cannabinoids?". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 8 108. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00108.
  9. ↑ Hamarneh, Sami (1972). "Pharmacy in medieval Islam and the history of drug addiction". Medical History. 16 (3): 226–237. doi:10.1017/S0025727300017725.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Duvall, Chris S. (2019). "A brief agricultural history of cannabis in Africa, from prehistory to canna-colony". EchoGéo (48). doi:10.4000/echogeo.17599.
  11. ↑ Wujastyk, Dominik (2002). "Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine". In Salema, A. (ed.). Ayurveda at the Crossroads of Care and Cure. Lisbon: Centro de História de Além-Mar. pp. 45–73. ISBN 972-98672-5-9.
  12. ↑ Khalifa, Ahmad M. (1975). "Traditional patterns of hashish use in Egypt". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 195–206. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.195.
  13. ↑ Grierson, George Abraham (1894). "Note on references to the hemp plant occurring in Sanskrit and Hindi literature". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–1894. Vol. III. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. pp. 246–249.
  14. ↑ Bellakhdar, Jamal (2013). "L'histoire du chanvre au Maghreb". Hespéris-Tamuda. XLVIII: 107–141. ISSN 0018-1005.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Díaz-Ordóñez, M.; Rodríguez Hernández, A.J. (2017). "Cannabis sativa y Chile (1577–1700): un insumo al servicio del Imperio". TEMPUS Revista en Historia General (in español) (6): 1–21. doi:10.17533/udea.tempus.n6a01.
  16. ↑ Acosta, C. (1578). "Del Bangue". Tractado de las drogas, y medicinas de las Indias Orientales (in español). Burgos: Martín de Victoria. pp. 359–361 – via Internet Archive.
  17. ↑ Duvall, Chris S. (2019). The African Roots of Marijuana. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9781478004530. ISBN 978-1-4780-0394-6.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Martin, Marie Alexandrine (1975). "Ethnobotanical Aspects of Cannabis in Southeast Asia". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 63–76. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.63.
  19. ↑ Lescarbot, Marc (1617). Histoire de la Nouvelle-France (in français) (3rd ed.). Paris: Adrian Perier. liv. IV, chap. XVIII – via Project Gutenberg.
  20. ↑ "Proceedings of the Virginia Assembly, 1619". America's Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses. National Park Service. Retrieved 14 October 2026 – via npshistory.com.
  21. ↑ du Toit, B.M. (1975). "Dagga: the history and ethnographic setting of Cannabis sativa in southern Africa". In Rubin, V. (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 81–116. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.81.
  22. ↑ Gordon, D. (1996). "From rituals of rapture to dependence: the political economy of Khoikhoi narcotic consumption, c.1487–1870". South African Historical Journal. 35 (1): 62–88. doi:10.1080/02582479608671247.
  23. ↑ Vachon, André (1966). "Talon (Talon Du Quesnoy), Jean". Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. 1. University of Toronto/Université Laval. Retrieved 29 October 2026.
  24. ↑ Dampier, William (1699). Voyages and Descriptions (PDF). Vol. II. London. p. 126 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Rahman, A.M.; Nemoto, K.; Matsushima, K.; Uddin, S.B.; Sarwar, A.K.M.G. (2022). "A History of Cannabis (Ganja) as an Economic Crop in Bangladesh from the Late 18th Century to 1989". Tropical Agriculture and Development. 66 (1): 21–32. doi:10.11248/jsta.66.21.
  26. ↑ Viana, F.L. de (1907). "Memorial of 1765". In Blair, E.H.; Robertson, J.A. (eds.). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 48. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 298. Retrieved 4 October 2026 – via Project Gutenberg.
  27. ↑ Artigas y Cuerva, M. (1922). "Bibliographical notes on Philippine agriculture, prefaced by a historical sketch" (PDF). The Philippine Agricultural Review. 15 (1): 5. Retrieved 3 October 2026 – via Wikimedia Commons.
  28. ↑ Blair, E.H.; Robertson, J.A., eds. (1907). "Events in Filipinas, 1764–1800". The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 50. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 47–48, 75. Retrieved 4 October 2026 – via Project Gutenberg.
  29. ↑ Rivera Rivera, L. (November 2013). El discurso jurídico sobre el cáñamo en la historia de México, de la Conquista a la Revolución (1521–1925) (Licenciatura thesis) (in español). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Estudios Profesionales Acatlán.
  30. ↑ Díaz-Ordóñez, M. (2019). "El abastecimiento militar de cáñamo para el imperio español (1665–1808): globalización, estado y empresarios en el largo siglo XVIII". Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie IV, Historia Moderna (in español) (32): 45–72. doi:10.5944/etfiv.32.2019.22239.
  31. ↑ Menz, Maximiliano M. (2005). "Os escravos da Feitoria do Linho Cânhamo: trabalho, conflito e negociação". Afro-Ásia (in português) (32): 139–158. doi:10.9771/aa.v0i32.21090.
  32. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Memorandum on hemp drugs in Bengal, by Mr. K. G. Gupta, Commissioner of Excise, Bengal". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. III: Appendices, Miscellaneous. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. app. A, "Brief historical sketch of the modes of taxation of ganja", p. 16 – via Internet Archive.
  33. ↑ Bancroft, H.H. (1884). History of California, vol. 1: 1542–1800. San Francisco: A.L. Bancroft & Company – via Internet Archive.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Rubin, Vera; Comitas, Lambros (1975). Ganja in Jamaica: A Medical Anthropological Study of Chronic Marihuana Use. The Hague: Mouton. doi:10.1515/9783110812077.
  35. ↑ Barros, André; Peres, Marta (2011). "Proibição da maconha no Brasil e suas raízes históricas escravocratas". Periferia (in português). 3 (2). doi:10.12957/periferia.2011.3953.
  36. ↑ Farias, Roberval Cordeiro de (1955). "Use of maconha (Cannabis sativa L.) in Brazil: control by health and police authorities". Bulletin on Narcotics (2). United Nations: 5–19. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Banks, Jamie (2021). "Ganja madness: cannabis, insanity, and indentured labor in British Guiana and Trinidad, 1881–1912". In Richert, Lucas; Mills, James H. (eds.). Cannabis: Global Histories. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. pp. 57–80. doi:10.7551/mitpress/12102.003.0006.
  38. ↑ O'Shaughnessy, W. B. (1839). On the Preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah (Cannabis indica): Their Effects on the Animal System in Health, and Their Utility in the Treatment of Tetanus and Other Convulsive Disorders. Calcutta: Bishop's College Press – via Internet Archive.
  39. ↑ Backhouse, James (1844). A Narrative of a Visit to the Mauritius and South Africa. London: Hamilton, Adams, and Co. pp. 372–373 – via Internet Archive.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Ordinance No. 2 of 1840". A Collection of the Laws of Mauritius and Its Dependencies. Vol. 4. 1867. p. 541 – via Google Books.
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  42. ↑ Duvall, Chris S. (2019). The African Roots of Marijuana. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. pp. 13, 25, 27–28, 31. doi:10.1215/9781478004530. ISBN 978-1-4780-0394-6.
  43. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. IV, "Extent of cultivation, and its tendency to increase or decrease", paras. 89–91, pp. 35–36 – via Internet Archive.
  44. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. XVIII, "Summary", paras. 740–742, pp. 359–361 – via Internet Archive.
  45. ↑ Mills, James H., Cannabis Britannica: Empire, Trade, and Prohibition 1800–1928, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003.
  46. ↑ Duvall, Chris S. (2026). "Cannabis et al.: the portmanteau biota concept applied to an enslaved Central African migration". Itinerario: 1–15. doi:10.1017/S0165115326100461.
  47. ↑ "Appendix H: Sketch of the History of Excise Administration". Collection of Papers Relating to the Excise Administration of India (Reprinted from the Supplement to the Gazette of India, 1 March 1890). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, India. 1890. paras. 1–16, pp. 80–83 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  48. ↑ Dukerley, Isidore (1866). "Note sur les différences que présente avec le chanvre ordinaire la variété de cette espèce connue en Algérie sous les noms de Kif et de Tekrouri". Bulletin de la Société botanique de France (in français). 13: 401–405.
  49. ↑ Bewley-Taylor, Dave; Blickman, Tom; Jelsma, Martin (March 2014). "The history of cannabis in the international drug control system" (PDF). The Rise and Decline of Cannabis Prohibition: The history of cannabis in the UN drug control system and options for reform (Report). Amsterdam; Swansea: Transnational Institute; Global Drug Policy Observatory.
  50. ↑ El Hadka, A. Ahmed (1965). "Forty years of the campaign against narcotic drugs in the United Arab Republic". Bulletin on Narcotics (4). United Nations: 1–12.
  51. ↑ Prince, Raymond; Greenfield, Rochelle; Marriott, John (1972). "Cannabis or alcohol? Observations on their use in Jamaica". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 1–9.
  52. ↑ Burton, Richard F. (1872). Zanzibar; City, Island, and Coast. Vol. 1. London: Tinsley Brothers – via Project Gutenberg.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Papers Relating to the Consumption of Ganja and Other Drugs in India (Return to an Address of the House of Commons, dated 21 February 1893). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 1893 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  54. ↑ Stefanis, C.; Ballas, C.; Madianou, D. (1975). "Sociocultural and Epidemiological Aspects of Hashish Use in Greece". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 303–326. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.303.
  55. ↑ Paterson, C. (2009). Prohibition and resistance: a socio-political exploration of the changing dynamics of the southern African cannabis trade, c. 1850 – the present (MA thesis). Rhodes University.
  56. ↑ An Act for preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes(Public Act No. 384), 30 June 1906, ss. 8, 13; 34 Stat. 768.59th Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  57. ↑ "Protocol de cloture of the International Opium Conference (unofficial translation), 23 January 1912". Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1912. Office of the Historian, United States Department of State. Document 305. Retrieved 24 October 2026.
  58. ↑ Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs (September 2002). Cannabis: Our Position for a Canadian Public Policy. Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs, Volume I: Parts I and II (PDF) (Report). Ottawa: Senate of Canada. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  59. ↑ Pruvost, Henry (1917). Substances vénéneuses : étude de législation comparée (Pharmacy thesis) (in français). Laval: Université de Nancy, École supérieure de pharmacie.
  60. ↑ Chattopadhyaya, Utathya, "Naogaon and the world: Intoxication, commoditisation, and imperialism in South Asia and the Indian Ocean, 1840–1940," PhD dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2018.
  61. ↑ Departamento de Salubridad Pública (15 March 1920). "Disposiciones sobre el comercio de productos que pueden ser utilizados para fomentar vicios que degeneren la raza, y sobre el cultivo de plantas que pueden ser empleadas con el mismo fin". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español): 1189. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  62. ↑ Chattopadhyaya, U. (2019). "Dagga and prohibition: markets, animals, and the imperial contexts of knowledge, 1893–1925". South African Historical Journal. 71 (4): 587–613. doi:10.1080/02582473.2019.1641738.
  63. ↑ Kozma, L. (2011). "The League of Nations and the debate over cannabis prohibition". History Compass. 9 (1): 61–70. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00740.x.
  64. ↑ League of Nations (August 1925). Records of the Second Opium Conference, Geneva, November 17th, 1924 – February 19th, 1925. Volume I: Plenary Meetings, Text of the Debates. Geneva: League of Nations. C.760.M.260.1924.XI – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  65. ↑ "Een gandja-verordening in Atjeh". De Sumatra Post (in Nederlands). 26 November 1924 – via Delpher.
  66. ↑ Dangerous Drugs Act, 1925(Act No. 15 & 16 Geo. 5, c. 74), 1925, section 1.United Kingdom.Retrieved 24 October 2026.
  67. ↑ Nkosi, P.I.; Devey, R.; Waetjen, T. (2020). "Cannabis policing in mid-twentieth century South Africa". Historia. 65 (1). doi:10.17159/2309-8392/2020/v65n1a4.
  68. ↑ The Dangerous Drugs Act, 1930(Act No. II of 1930), 1930, assent note, long title and preamble.British India.
  69. ↑ The Dangerous Drugs Act, 1930(Act No. II of 1930), 1930, section 7.British India.
  70. ↑ О дополнении Уголовного кодекса РСФСР статьей 179-а(Постановление ВЦИК и СНК РСФСР), 1 December 1934.RSFSR.
  71. ↑ Babayan, E. A. (1990). "The legal regulation of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics". Bulletin on Narcotics. 42 (1): 73–81.
  72. ↑ "Dahir dictando medidas provisionales para prohibir el cultivo de tabaco y kif en las cabilas de nuestra Zona de Protectorado". Boletín Oficial de la Zona de Protectorado Español en Marruecos (in español). 23 (24): 1071–1073. 31 August 1935 – via Biblioteca Virtual de Prensa Histórica.
  73. ↑ "พระราชบัญญัติกัญชา พุทธศักราช ๒๔๗๗" [Cannabis Act, B.E. 2477] (PDF). Royal Gazette (in ไทย). 52 (ก): 339–343. 5 May 1935. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
  74. ↑ "Decreto-Lei nº 891, de 25 de novembro de 1938: aprova a Lei de Fiscalização de Entorpecentes". Legislação (in português). Presidência da República. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  75. ↑ Green, Melvyn; Miller, Ralph D. (1975). "Cannabis Use in Canada". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 497–520. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.497.
  76. ↑ González Ascencio, Gerardo (2025). "La labor científica del médico Leopoldo Salazar Viniegra en México y el Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías de 1940". Alegatos (in español) (119): 109. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  77. ↑ Collomb, Henri; Diop, Moussa; Ayats, Henri (1962). "Intoxication par le chanvre indien au Sénégal". Cahiers d'études africaines (in français). 3 (9): 139–144.
  78. ↑ An Act to Amend Sections Three Hundred and Thirty-Nine and Three Hundred and Fifty-Six of Commonwealth Act Numbered Four Hundred and Sixty-Six, Otherwise Known as the National Internal Revenue Code, as Amended(Republic Act No. 887), 19 June 1953.Philippines.Retrieved 3 October 2026.
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  81. ↑ Indian Hemp Decree 1966(Decree No. 19 of 1966), 31 March 1966, Supplement to Official Gazette Extraordinary No. 33, Vol. 53, 4 April 1966, Part A, pp. A93–A97.Federal Military Government.Nigeria.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  82. ↑ "Health and Safety Code, section 11362.5". California Legislative Information. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  83. ↑ "Order Fixing October 17, 2018 as the Day on which Certain Provisions of the Act Come into Force". Canada Gazette, Part II. 152 (14). 11 July 2018. SI/2018-52. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  84. ↑ "Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development and Others v Prince; National Director of Public Prosecutions and Others v Rubin; National Director of Public Prosecutions and Others v Acton and Others (CCT108/17) [2018] ZACC 30". Constitutional Court of South Africa. 18 September 2018 – via SAFLII.
  85. ↑ "Cannabis for Private Purposes Act 7 of 2024". Republic of South Africa. 3 June 2024.
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