Cannabis trade in Colombia
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Cannabis trade in Colombia is the buying and selling of marijuana grown in Colombia, in the country and abroad, together with the licensed trade in medical cannabis that began in 2016. By 1940 marijuana cigarettes were sold in the ports and cities of the Caribbean coast.[1]: 210 In the early 1950s marijuana from Santa Marta reached Florida with seamen on the banana boats.[2]: 4–5 From the late 1960s to the mid-1980s northern Colombia exported marijuana to the United States on a large scale, in the trade Colombians call the bonanza marimbera.[3]: 16 When that trade collapsed most Colombian marijuana went to the home market. A study published in 2009 cites the anti-narcotics police for the view that 95 per cent of the marijuana produced in the country was consumed there.[4]: 238 In the 2010s northern Cauca supplied the whole country and part of the markets of Ecuador, Peru and Chile.[5]: 59
Decree 2467 of 2015 and Law 1787 of 2016 opened a licensed trade in cannabis for medical and scientific use, with exports of its products.[6][7] Licensed exports were worth 10.8 million dollars in 2023 by the figures of the export agency ProColombia.[8]
The home market
Cigarettes in the ports, 1930s–1950s
The government's report on the drug trade for 1940 stated that on the Caribbean coast marijuana cigarettes were sold mostly in brothels and in places the poor frequented, or at the stalls that sold fried food (fritangas) and cane drink (guarapo). In February 1940 the government cited a price of one peso fifty centavos a cigarette as proof that its campaign against the drug had worked.[1]: 210 Sellers were arrested in Cartagena, Santa Marta and Fundación in the early 1940s. In 1945 a United States naval report stated that buyers could get marijuana from taxi drivers or in the brothels. A cigarette then cost ten centavos.[1]: 212
The anthropologist Anthony Henman cites press reports of the mid-1940s on an urban black market and on clandestine plantations in the Cauca valley and on the Caribbean coast.[9]: 285 In March 1947 the Barranquilla police, pursuing the young men who smoked marijuana in every district of the city, held almost a thousand cigarettes found in one house.[10] In January 1952 the newspaper's correspondent in Cali reported a raid on a place that sold glasses of bay rum and marijuana cigarettes; the seller was sent before a judge with his customers.[11] The correspondent in Armenia reported the same week, without confirming it, that large plantations near the city were tended by smallholders financed by a group of clandestine traffickers in the west of the country.[12] A study for Colombia's truth commission dates to the late 1950s the move into the marijuana business of gangs that had lived by smuggling, robbery and kidnapping; in its account they later took control of the cocaine trade.[13]: 11
A national market
In 1979 the magazine Time found samples of the Colombian varieties it described in a street market in Bogotá, behind the Hilton hotel, where one trader offered a red hashish from the Llanos.[14] By the figures of the United States National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee, marijuana sold for 25 to 75 dollars a kilogram in the middle of 1993. At the end of the year it sold for 10 to 15 dollars at the fields and 20 to 70 dollars at the ports of the north coast. Hashish oil fetched 2,600 to 7,500 dollars a litre that year.[15]: 65
A report in El Tiempo in January 2014, summarised by the news site Colombia Reports, stated that only three in ten kilos went abroad. The Ministry of the Interior put domestic consumption at up to 700 tonnes a year. A kilo bought for 10 dollars in Cauca could bring up to 500 dollars on the streets of Bogotá.[16] In 2017 the government's drug observatory wrote that marijuana grown in Colombia supplied the country's urban markets.[17]: 99 Marijuana was the illicit drug most used in Colombia: in the national survey of 2013, 87 per cent of those who had used an illicit drug in the past year had used marijuana. Of its users, 75.1 per cent reported using cripy. A study by the National Planning Department cited in the same report presumed that wholesale networks made a return of more than 140 per cent on each kilogram sold.[17]: 31, 133
In 2011 a kilo of creepy or cripy, the marijuana grown under lights from cuttings, could fetch up to 100,000 pesos, ten times the usual price.[18] The national price of a kilo of common marijuana fell from 390,500 pesos in 2015 to 333,700 in 2016, by the figures of the crop-monitoring system run by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) with the government. Cripy sold for 280,600 pesos a kilo on the Pacific coast and 910,400 in Meta and Guaviare. UNODC found no evidence of a difference between the plants; the difference lay in how the marijuana was sold and under what name.[19]: 118–119 In northern Cauca the price paid to growers fell from 50,000 to 18,000 pesos a pound from November 2023.[20]: 27 The drug observatory's price bulletin for 2022 gives a national average of 260,600 pesos a kilogram of marijuana in 2022, against 333,800 in 2021.[21] The observatory's estimate of the retail drug markets for 2019, built on the national survey of drug use of that year, found marijuana the market with the most users, more than 635,000, spending about 336 billion pesos a year.[22]
Exports before the boom
In 1952 the Colombian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in a confidential note printed in the government's annual report to the United Nations, described a seaman on a banana boat who bought revolvers in Miami, sold them in Santa Marta and bought marijuana there to sell on his return. The note called Santa Marta the principal source of marijuana in Latin America known in Miami: in at least 15 of 40 cases investigated in a year the marijuana had come from there. Marijuana grown near the city sold for up to 60 pesos (23.88 dollars) a pound; the seamen sold it in the United States for 125 dollars. Much of it passed through the owners of establishments in the brothel district. The note asked for a watch on every ship on the run from Santa Marta to Miami, Tampa and Jacksonville.[2]: 4–5 In December 1953 a man arrested in Miami with 723 grams of marijuana said that he had bought it in Santa Marta.[23]: no. 215
In Medellín residents of the Barrio Antioquia remembered men they called galofardos (a lunfardo word for thieves) as the first to traffic marijuana and cocaine to the United States, from the late 1950s.[24]
The bonanza marimbera
From the late 1960s marijuana grown on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, and later in the Serranía del Perijá, left through the ports near Riohacha and through Santa Marta for Florida, by sea and by air.[3]: 77[25]: 111–112 A study by the financiers' association ANIF, cited by José Cervantes Angulo in La noche de las luciérnagas (1980), followed the price of a pound along the chain. A first intermediary bought from the growers at 160 pesos and sold to the owner of an airstrip or landing place at 190. American buyers paid 260 pesos in Colombia; the importer in the United States paid 2,400 pesos for marijuana brought by air and 3,200 for marijuana brought by sea. In Cervantes's own figures for the middle of 1979, a pound delivered in the United States was worth 100 or 120 dollars, while the growers were paid 5 dollars.[26]: 110 ANIF reckoned that 70 per cent of the marijuana went by aircraft and 30 per cent by ship.[27]: 58
In the cotton country of the Cesar the day wage in the marijuana fields rose to 800 pesos, with cigarettes supplied, while a cotton grower could pay at most 200 to 300.[28]: 258 In the assessment of the political scientist Jonathan Hartlyn, marijuana gave proportionally more direct employment in Colombia than cocaine.[29]: 23 n. 28 The Black Tuna Gang, a ring in Miami, bought directly from a Colombian supplier from the autumn of 1976 at about 60 dollars a pound.[30] A history published by the Drug Enforcement Administration credits Operation Stopgap, the American campaign against the ships that carried the marijuana north, with raising the price in Colombia from 20 dollars a pound to as much as 80.[31]
Henman, who did fieldwork in Cauca in 1973 and 1974, wrote that part of that department's crop was shipped from the Pacific ports of Tumaco, Guapi and Buenaventura to the coast of California.[9]: 283 The truth commission's study finds an early alliance between criminal groups of the north of Valle del Cauca and the trade of the north coast, which was at its height in the mid-1970s.[13]: 14
ANIF valued it at 1.4 billion dollars by the mid-1970s, 39 per cent of the value of all Colombian exports.[32]: 160, 167 A later estimate based mainly on United States government figures, cited by Hartlyn, put its foreign-exchange value at no more than 250 million dollars in any year from 1977 to 1981. The same estimate gave Colombia 52 per cent of the American marijuana market in 1977, 79 per cent in 1981 and 22 per cent by 1985.[29]: 18
Exports after the boom
The United States government believed that much of the 307 tonnes of bulk marijuana seized in Colombia in 1991 had been grown on the Venezuelan side of the Perijá range.[33]: 107 In 1993 Colombian traffickers again sent marijuana for the United States through Mexico and shipped it to Europe; in July the port authorities of Rotterdam seized 7 tonnes shipped from Colombia. Colombian authorities confiscated about 799 kilograms of hashish and hashish oil that year.[15]: 65 The head of the anti-narcotics police said that traffickers were making hashish for export to the United States.[34] In 1997, the State Department reported, little Colombian marijuana was seized in the United States, but significant seizures were made in Europe.[35] In about 2008 the anti-narcotics police reported a rise in seizures of Colombian marijuana bound abroad, mainly for Central America.[4]: 238 In the 2010s marijuana from northern Cauca supplied part of the markets of Ecuador, Peru and Chile, by the reports of those countries' authorities cited by the Dejusticia researchers Luis Felipe Cruz Olivera and Isabel Pereira Arana.[5]: 59 In 2026 the newspaper El Nuevo Siglo reported an estimate by CESED, the security and drugs research centre of the Universidad de los Andes, that about 80 per cent of the cannabis grown for the illicit economy was exported.[36]
Seizures and estimates
From 1993 to 2001 the State Department's tables carried a constant estimate of about 5,000 hectares of cannabis and a potential yield of about 4,150 tonnes a year, with the note that the reported cultivation "has not been confirmed by USG survey".[37]: IV-29 In 2017 the crop-monitoring system run by UNODC with the government stated that it had no census method for measuring the area under marijuana.[5]: 83
| Year | Tonnes | Reported by |
|---|---|---|
| 1993 | 549 | Colombian police, in the United States NNICC report[15]: 65 and the State Department's table[37]: IV-29 |
| 1995 | 166 | State Department table (police and military combined)[37]: IV-29 |
| 1996 | 235 | State Department table[37]: IV-29 |
| 1997 | 136 | State Department table[37]: IV-29 |
| 1998 | 69 | State Department table[37]: IV-29 |
| 1999 | 65 | State Department table[37]: IV-29 |
| 2000 | 46 | State Department table[37]: IV-29 |
| 2001 | 80 | State Department table[37]: IV-29 |
| 2009 | 191.6 | National Narcotics Directorate, in the State Department's report[38] |
| 2010 | 228 | National Police, as reported by InSight Crime[18] |
| 2013 | 410 | UNODC crop-monitoring system (pressed marijuana; the highest figure of 2006–2016)[19]: 114 |
| 2016 | 188 | UNODC crop-monitoring system (pressed marijuana)[19]: 114 |
| 2016 | 193.1 | Colombian drug observatory (pressed marijuana)[17]: 99 |
| 2017 | 239.4 | Ministry of Defence, in a study by the Ministry of Justice[39]: 82 |
| 2018 | 264.4 | Ministry of Defence (Ministry of Justice study)[39]: 82 |
| 2019 | 376.1 | Ministry of Defence (Ministry of Justice study)[39]: 82 |
| 2020 | 534.6 | Ministry of Defence (Ministry of Justice study)[39]: 82 |
| 2021 | 491.0 | Ministry of Defence (Ministry of Justice study)[39]: 82 |
| 2022 | 391.1 | Ministry of Defence (Ministry of Justice study)[39]: 82 |
| 2023 | 421.2 | Ministry of Defence (Ministry of Justice study)[39]: 82 |
| 2024 | more than 452 | Minister of Defence, as reported by the EFE agency[40] |
| 2025 | about 424.4 | Ministry of Defence, as reported by El Nuevo Siglo[36] |
In 2016 more than half the pressed marijuana seized was taken in four departments: Valle del Cauca (18 per cent), Magdalena (15), Antioquia (10) and Cauca (9).[19]: 114 From 2016 to June 2024 Valle del Cauca accounted for 804.7 tonnes, 27.7 per cent of the national total, and Cauca for 648.2 tonnes, 22.3 per cent.[39]: 83
The licensed trade
Decree 2467 of 2015 set up licences for growing cannabis and for making and exporting its derivatives for medical and scientific use. Law 1787 of 2016 gave the regime a statute.[6][7] The Ministry of Justice issued 2,386 licences for seed and cultivation between September 2017 and August 2023.[41]: 3 The number issued each year fell from 928 in 2020 to 57 in 2023. In September 2024 El Tiempo counted 6,353 licences of the three kinds issued by the ministry, the medicines regulator and the agricultural institute.[8] A survey by the research centre Fedesarrollo in 2019 found 70 per cent of the licences in or near cities.[41]: 3
ProColombia put licensed exports at 4.8 million dollars in 2020 and 5.2 million in 2021.[42] The members of the industry association Asocolcanna shipped 310,270 dollars' worth of cannabis products in 2019 and 4,659,839 dollars' worth in 2020; 64 per cent of the 2020 exports went to the United States, 16 per cent to the United Kingdom and 12 per cent to Australia. The association put the industry's exports from 2019 to September 2022 at 17.2 million dollars.[41]: 4 Exports of dried flower began in July 2022; by July 2023 ProColombia counted 65 shipments of it.[41]: 4 In 2022 the largest buyers were Argentina (40 per cent), Brazil (14 per cent) and Australia (12 per cent), by ProColombia's figures,[43] and Bloomberg Línea reported exports of 9.6 million dollars for the year.[44] By ProColombia's figures exports reached 10.8 million dollars in 2023, most of it bound for Brazil (32 per cent), Australia (25 per cent) and Germany (14 per cent). In the first half of 2024 they came to just over 3 million.[8] In 2023 the president of Asocolcanna said that 26 of the 57,000 hectares licensed for cannabis were planted, and that about 40 per cent of the companies that had held a licence had closed.[44] The Ministry of Health counted 1,081 licensed growers on 30 September 2025.[45]: 12 The researchers of CESED concluded in 2023 that the estimates of supply and demand for the medical industry had been oversized.[41]: 2
Colombia's licensed production depends on estimates confirmed by the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB). In 2022 Colombia reported producing 34.3 tonnes of cannabis, 4.8 per cent of world production, and exporting 4.7 tonnes; its stocks of 85.4 tonnes were the second largest after the United Kingdom's.[46]: 45, 47 In 2024 it exported 11.7 tonnes, 4.6 per cent of the world total, after Canada and Portugal.[47]: 53 In September 2024 Colombia held the second-largest estimate for THC in the board's figures, after Denmark. The national narcotics fund had asked for an estimate of 100 tonnes for 2024.[8] Decree 1138 of 2025 let licence holders sell cannabis flower in Colombia as a medical product besides exporting it.[48]
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Sáenz Rovner, Eduardo (2007). "La "prehistoria" de la marihuana en Colombia: consumo y cultivos entre los años 30 y 60" (PDF). Cuadernos de Economía (in español). XXVI (47): 205–222.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Government of Colombia (30 July 1953). Annual reports of governments under the Convention of 13 July 1931 for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs, as amended by the Protocol of 11 December 1946: Colombia, annual report for 1952 (Report). New York: United Nations. E/NR.1952/65. Retrieved 2 November 2026 – via United Nations Digital Library.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Britto, Lina (2020). Marijuana Boom: The Rise and Fall of Colombia's First Drug Paradise. Oakland: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-32547-0.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Florian R., Néstor M.; Parada A., Fabián; Garzón M., William F. (2009). "Estudio del contenido de canabinoides en muestras de marihuana (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivadas en varias regiones de Colombia". Vitae (in español). 16 (2): 237–244. ISSN 0121-4004.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Cruz Olivera, Luis Felipe; Pereira Arana, Isabel (November 2021). Laberintos de prohibición y regulación: los grises de la marihuana en Colombia. Colección Dejusticia (in español). Bogotá: Editorial Dejusticia. ISBN 978-958-5597-98-3. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Por el cual se reglamentan los aspectos de que tratan los artículos 3, 5, 6 y 8 de la Ley 30 de 1986(Decreto No. 2467), 22 December 2015, arts. 1 and 3 (Diario Oficial No. 49.734, 22 December 2015).Colombia, Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social.Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Por medio de la cual se reglamenta el Acto Legislativo 02 de 2009(Ley No. 1787), 6 July 2016, arts. 1 and 3 (Diario Oficial No. 49.926, 6 July 2016).Colombia.Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Ortiz Fonnegra, María Isabel (28 September 2024). "Cannabis medicinal en Colombia: ¿por qué a 8 años de su regulación el mercado no florece?". El Tiempo (in español). Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Henman, Anthony (2019) [1978]. Mama coca (in español). Translated by Gabriel Iriarte; preface by Wade Davis (8th ed.). Popayán: Editorial Universidad del Cauca. ISBN 978-958-732-345-0.
- ↑ Goenaga (27 March 1947). "Desciende el volúmen de las construcciones en Atlántico: enérgica persecución a los marihuaneros". El Tiempo (in español). Bogotá. p. 6. Retrieved 2 November 2026 – via Google News Archive.
- ↑ Mateus Becerra (27 January 1952). "Descubierto un antro de consumo de Bay-Rum y de marihuana, ayer". El Tiempo (in español). Bogotá. p. 6. Retrieved 2 November 2026 – via Google News Archive.
- ↑ Capacho (28 January 1952). "Probable existencia de grandes cultivos rurales de marihuana". El Tiempo (in español). Bogotá. p. 14. Retrieved 2 November 2026 – via Google News Archive.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Vanegas Muñoz, Gildardo (2022). Caracterización del narcotráfico en el norte del departamento del Cauca, departamento del Valle del Cauca y Eje Cafetero y sus relaciones con el conflicto armado (1958-2020) (Consultancy report) (in español). Comisión para el Esclarecimiento de la Verdad, la Convivencia y la No Repetición.
- ↑ "The Colombian connection". Time. 29 January 1979. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (August 1994). The NNICC Report 1993: The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States (PDF) (Report). Drug Enforcement Administration. DEA-94066. Retrieved 1 November 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
- ↑ Zwehl, Philipp (7 January 2014). "Marijuana trafficking on the rise in Colombia: Report". Colombia Reports. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Observatorio de Drogas de Colombia (2017). Reporte de drogas de Colombia 2017 (PDF) (Report) (in español). Bogotá: Ministerio de Justicia y del Derecho. Retrieved 20 October 2026 – via COPOLAD.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Pachico, Elyssa (21 June 2011). "Potent Colombian Pot Could Be Big Earner for FARC". InSight Crime. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 UNODC; Gobierno de Colombia (July 2017). Monitoreo de territorios afectados por cultivos ilícitos 2016 (PDF) (Report) (in español). Bogotá: UNODC.
{{cite report}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Espitia Cueca, Carlos Eduardo; Majbub Avendaño, Salomón (March 2024). La economía de la marihuana en el enclave productivo del Norte del Cauca (PDF) (Report) (in español). Instituto de Estudios para el Desarrollo y la Paz (Indepaz). ISSN 1909-0900. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ Observatorio de Drogas de Colombia. Boletín sobre precios de las drogas ilícitas, año 2022 (PDF) (Report) (in español). Bogotá: Ministerio de Justicia y del Derecho. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ Observatorio de Drogas de Colombia. Estimación del tamaño de los principales mercados ilícitos minoristas de drogas en Colombia, año 2019 (PDF) (Reporte técnico) (in español). Bogotá: Ministerio de Justicia y del Derecho. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ Secretariat of the United Nations (15 March 1954). Summary of illicit transactions and seizures reported to the Secretariat of the United Nations between 1 January and 28 February 1954 (Report). Vol. IX. New York: United Nations. E/NS.1954/Summary 1. Retrieved 2 November 2026 – via United Nations Digital Library.
- ↑ Salazar, Alonso (January 1998). La cola del lagarto (in español). Medellín: Corporación Región. ISBN 958-96265-5-6.
- ↑ Sáenz Rovner, Eduardo (2011). "Entre Carlos Lehder y los vaqueros de la cocaína. La consolidación de las redes de narcotraficantes colombianos en Miami en los años 70". Cuadernos de Economía (in español). 30 (54): 105–126.
- ↑ Cervantes Angulo, José (1980). La noche de las luciérnagas (in español). Bogotá: Plaza & Janés.
- ↑ Betancourt, Darío; García, Martha Luz (1994). Contrabandistas, marimberos y mafiosos: historia social de la mafia colombiana (1965–1992) (in español). Bogotá: TM Editores. ISBN 958-601-481-9.
- ↑ Barrera, Víctor A. (2014). "Las vicisitudes de la integración. Trayectorias de desarrollo y conflicto armado en el Cesar". In González, Fernán E. (ed.). Territorio y conflicto en la Costa Caribe (in español). Bogotá: Odecofi-Cinep. pp. 227–330. ISBN 978-958-644-178-2.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link) - ↑ 29.0 29.1 Hartlyn, Jonathan (1993). Drug Trafficking and Democracy in Colombia in the 1980s (Report). Working Papers. Barcelona: Institut de Ciències Polítiques i Socials.
- ↑ United States v. Phillips 664 F.2d 971. 5th Cir. (1981).
- ↑ "DEA History Book, 1975–1980". Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original on 13 August 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2026.
- ↑ Britto, Lina (2010). "A Trafficker's Paradise: The "War On Drugs" and the New Cold War in Colombia". Contemporánea: Historia y problemas del siglo XX. 1 (1): 159–177. ISSN 1688-7638.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Report). United States Department of State. 1992. Retrieved 2 November 2026 – via HathiTrust.
- ↑ "Prevén nueva bonanza marimbera". El Tiempo (in español). 7 June 1993. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
- ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 1998). "South America". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 1997 (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Cultivo y consumo de marihuana, la otra amenaza en Colombia". El Nuevo Siglo (in español). Bogotá. 13 February 2026. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 37.7 37.8 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2002). "South America". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 2001 (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2010). "Country Reports: Afghanistan through Colombia". 2010 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) (Report). Vol. I. United States Department of State. Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 39.7 Jiménez García, Williams Gilberto; Daza Vargas, Francisco Javier; López Bayona, Álvaro Iván; Santamaría Uribe, Nicolás Sebastián (2025). Gómez de la Rosa, Camila; Lizarazo Vargas, Nadia Soley; Barrera Castiblanco, Marcos Andrés (eds.). Crimen organizado en Colombia: estudio sobre factores, incidencias y acción estatal (PDF) (in español). Bogotá: Ministerio de Justicia y del Derecho, Observatorio de Política Criminal. ISBN 978-628-97324-5-0. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ "Incautación de cocaína en el país aumentó en un 14 % frente al 2023: más de 848 toneladas". El Heraldo (in español). Barranquilla. EFE. 29 December 2024. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 Zuleta, Pablo; Tocua, Bernardo; Martínez Ferro, Tatiana (2023). Cannabis legal: desafíos de la industria de cannabis para usos médicos y científicos en Colombia (PDF) (Report). Documento Temático 41 (in español). Bogotá: Centro de Estudios sobre Seguridad y Drogas (CESED), Universidad de los Andes. Retrieved 1 November 2026.
- ↑ "Colombia apuesta a la exportación de cannabis medicinal". Valora Analitik (in español). 9 February 2022. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ Salazar Castellanos, Daniel (26 January 2023). "Exportaciones de cannabis colombiano se disparan: ¿qué productos vende y a dónde?". Bloomberg Línea (in español). Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Salazar Castellanos, Daniel (3 May 2023). "Cannabis en Colombia: por qué el negocio pierde brillo y empresas cierran operaciones". Bloomberg Línea (in español). Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social (2025). Proyecto de decreto por el cual se modifica parcialmente el Decreto 1138 de 2025: memoria justificativa (PDF) (Draft decree) (in español). Retrieved 3 November 2026 – via Ámbito Jurídico.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2024). Narcotic Drugs 2023: Estimated World Requirements for 2024; Statistics for 2022 (PDF) (Report). New York: United Nations. E/INCB/2023/2. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2026). Narcotic Drugs 2025: Estimated World Requirements for 2026; Statistics for 2024 (PDF) (Report). New York: United Nations. E/INCB/2025/2. Retrieved 3 November 2026.
- ↑ Por medio del cual se modifica parcialmente el Título 11 de la Parte 8 del Libro 2 del Decreto 780 de 2016, Único Reglamentario del Sector Salud y Protección Social, en relación con el acceso seguro e informado al uso del cannabis y de la planta de cannabis(Decreto No. 1138), 27 October 2025, arts. 1, 3, 4, 13, 16 and 17.Colombia, Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social.Retrieved 15 October 2026.