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Australia

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Australia
Uluru at sunset, Northern Territory
Uluru at sunset, Northern Territory
Capital Canberra
Continent Oceania
Subregion Australia and New Zealand
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Medical use under licence; otherwise illegal (adult personal use allowed in the ACT)
Status Since 2016
Enforcement Cautions, fines or diversion for small amounts in every state and territory; criminal penalties for cultivation, supply and import
Documentation
Growing Regions 0
Growing Areas 0
Accessions 1
Conservation
Populations none documented yet


Australia is a country in Oceania. Cannabis is the illicit drug Australians use most: 11.7 per cent of people aged 14 and over had used it in the twelve months before the national survey of 2019. Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people the figure was 16.0 per cent.[1]: para. 1.9 Cannabis sativa is naturalised in the five mainland states and in the Northern Territory.[2] The earliest Australian herbarium sheet of the plant, gathered at Richmond in New South Wales in 1876, is marked "Wild".[3]

The states and territories are primarily responsible for the criminal law on drugs and the Commonwealth for controls at the border.[4] Since 29 October 2016 the Commonwealth has licensed the cultivation of cannabis for medicinal and research purposes.[5] By May 2024 every state and territory had a response other than prosecution, such as a caution, a fine or an education session, for a person found with a small amount.[6] In the Australian Capital Territory adults may since 31 January 2020 possess up to 50 grams of dried cannabis and grow one or two plants, with no more than four to a household.[7]: 9

Geography

The Australian Plant Census lists Cannabis sativa as naturalised in Western Australia, the Northern Territory, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. It treats Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis as synonyms of it.[2] In New South Wales it is "frequently cultivated, occasionally naturalized"; its common names there are Indian hemp and marijuana.[8] Of the 130 herbarium sheets from Australia indexed in GBIF, 75 come from New South Wales, 14 from Tasmania, 11 each from Queensland and South Australia and 8 each from Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory.[9]

Wild plants in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales figure in the first reports of recreational smoking in Australia, which appeared in tabloid papers and underground newsletters during the 1960s.[10] The discovery of plantations in several parts of New South Wales was one of the reasons for the state's Royal Commission into Drug Trafficking of 1977 to 1979, which examined seizures in the Riverina and at Coleambally, Euston and Byron Bay, among other places.[11] In 1998 a study of long-term users called the North Coast of New South Wales an area "with high levels of cannabis cultivation and use".[12] Queensland's climate allows cannabis to be grown outdoors all year.[13]: 84 Once police began spotting outdoor plots from the air, growers moved indoors to hydroponics.[10]

Demographics

Communities with cannabis relationships

In Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, health workers classed 31 per cent of men and 8 per cent of women in a sample of 689 people in the eastern region as cannabis users in 1999. In one community in 2000, 39 per cent of men and 20 per cent of women said they had used it in the previous month; Alan Clough and his co-authors took the figures to support reports of a recent rise in use, especially among women.[14] In random samples of 336 people aged 13 to 36 in two Arnhem Land communities, 67 per cent of men and 22 per cent of women were current users.[15] A study of 106 people in three remote communities found that heavy users, who smoked six or more cones a day, were four times as likely as the others to report moderate to severe depressive symptoms.[16] In evidence to the Senate committee on the Legalising Cannabis Bill 2023, the Northern Territory Police Force cited a Northern Territory parliamentary inquiry of 2007 that had found "very high rates of cannabis use in remote communities".[17]: para. 2.91

In the account of the filmmaker Sharon Shostak, "draft dodgers", university students and people in their twenties who had tired of "the rat race" moved to the Northern Rivers of New South Wales in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[18] Students from Sydney held the Aquarius festival at Nimbin in 1973, in a dairy town hit by the slump of the late 1960s. The ABC wrote in 2023 that cannabis was "a key ingredient" of the festival and has remained one in Nimbin.[19] In March 1993, after what SBS News describes as thousands of raids and arrests through the 1980s and early 1990s, residents protested at the police station; on 1 May 1993 the town held its first MardiGrass rally for cannabis law reform.[20] Of 268 people on the North Coast who had used cannabis regularly for at least ten years, two-thirds grew it for their own use; a quarter had been charged with possession and 11 per cent with cultivation.[12]

Agriculture

Hemp was grown in the first decades of the colony of New South Wales. A return of cultivation at the end of 1809, printed in the second edition of The History of New South Wales published under the name of George Barrington, lists 6 acres of "flax and hemp" held by officers and 28½ acres of "flax, hemp, and hops" held by settlers; hemp is not given an acreage of its own.[21] The historian John Jiggens has argued that British concern over hemp, then the material of sails and rope, lay behind the decision to settle Botany Bay; he also says that there is "a dearth of documentation" on the hemp experiment in New South Wales.[22]

The modern industrial hemp industry began in the 1990s. Tasmania allowed it in 1995 under its Poisons Act 1971.[23]: 5–16 Victoria's authorities to grow "low-THC cannabis", whose leaves and flowering heads may contain no more than 1.0 per cent tetrahydrocannabinol, took effect on 1 October 1998.[24] Queensland provides for the commercial production of "industrial cannabis", plants with no more than 1 per cent THC, in Part 5B of its Drugs Misuse Act, a part first inserted in December 1998.[25] Western Australia legislated in 2004, New South Wales in 2008, South Australia in 2017 and the Northern Territory in 2019; the Australian Capital Territory's Act dates from 2004.[23]: 5–16 The New South Wales licence covers commercial and scientific uses of low-THC hemp and excludes medicinal production.[26] About 4,200 hectares of hemp were grown in the 2019–2020 season.[23]: 5–16 Foods made from the seed of low-THC varieties have been allowed since 12 November 2017.[27]

Cannabis in Australia

History

Main article: History of cannabis in Australia

In the 19th century cannabis had some medicinal use in Australia. Cannabis cigarettes remained on legal sale until the early 20th century.[28]: 21 Controls then came at two levels. At the border the Commonwealth banned imports of the drug in 1926. The Geneva Opium Convention of 1925, in force from 1928, had been the first international treaty to take in cannabis.[28]: 23[29]: 2 Within the country, each state in turn made it an offence to use Indian hemp or its resin without authority: Victoria in 1927 or 1928, then South Australia (1934), New South Wales (1935), Queensland (1937), Western Australia (1950) and Tasmania (1959).[28]: 23[29]: 3 Few Australians used it before the 1960s.[29]: 3

The federal statute is the Narcotic Drugs Act 1967. It received assent on 30 May 1967 and came into force on 1 January 1968. Its stated object is "to give effect to certain of Australia's obligations under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961".[30] Australia ratified the Single Convention itself on 1 December 1967 and extended it the same day to Papua, the Trust Territory of New Guinea and its other territories.[31] It is also a party to the 1972 Protocol amending that convention (22 November 1972),[32] the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (19 May 1982)[33] and the 1988 Convention (16 November 1992).[34]

An illicit market formed from the late 1960s. Wayne Hall and his co-authors date wider use among young adults to the years after 1967, when American servicemen on leave from Vietnam frequented Kings Cross in Sydney; by the early 1970s it had spread to the suburbs. New South Wales recorded 57 arrests for possession in 1966, 365 in 1970 and 4,300 in 1977; its government raised the penalties.[10] Imported herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, stronger and dearer than the local product, came mostly by sea from Southeast Asia in the early 1970s. In the later part of the decade potent herbal cannabis was grown within Australia, part of it in the hands of criminal organisations.[10] Two royal commissions found a large illicit cannabis market.[10] New South Wales set up the first after Donald Mackay, an activist against the drug trade, disappeared on 15 July 1977 at Griffith, a centre of illicit cannabis growing.[10][11] Philip Woodward, named sole Royal Commissioner into drug trafficking on 5 August, looked into cannabis, narcotics, heroin, amphetamines, cocaine and hallucinogens. His final report was delivered on 31 October 1979.[11] The Commonwealth's Royal Commission of Inquiry into Drugs, known as the Williams inquiry, was set up in 1979.[28]: 24

The first step away from criminal penalties was taken in the Australian Capital Territory, whose criminal law the Commonwealth then made: from 1975 possessing less than 25 grams there carried a $100 fine instead. In 1977 South Australia's Royal Commission into the Non-medical Use of Drugs proposed, in a discussion paper, that adults no longer face criminal penalties for using or possessing cannabis.[10] South Australia became the first state to decriminalise possession when its Cannabis Expiation Notice, a fine paid in place of prosecution, came into force on 30 April 1987.[10][35] The Australian Capital Territory introduced a Simple Cannabis Offence Notice in 1992.[7]: 7 The Northern Territory's infringement notices, which in the 2016 text of its Misuse of Drugs Act cover possessing a small amount and growing no more than two plants, took effect on 1 July 1996.[36] New South Wales chose a police cautioning scheme, introduced in 2000.[10][37] Western Australia's Cannabis Control Act 2003, with fines for possessing and growing small amounts, came into operation on 22 March 2004.[38][10] After a change of government it was repealed by the Cannabis Law Reform Act 2010, which received assent on 28 October 2010.[39][10]

In the Australian Capital Territory the Drugs of Dependence (Personal Cannabis Use) Amendment Act 2019, in force from 31 January 2020, removed criminal penalties for adults who possess or grow cannabis for their own use.[40][10] No federal change has matched it: a Senate committee recommended against passing the Legalising Cannabis Bill 2023, a private senator's bill to legalise recreational use by adults.[1]: para. 1.1[17]

Medicinal cultivation required a change to Commonwealth law. The Narcotic Drugs Act had allowed no cultivation at all; growing cannabis outside Commonwealth control would have breached the international conventions. The Minister for Health announced on 17 October 2015 that the government meant to amend the Act so that cannabis could be grown under control for medicinal and scientific purposes.[4] Parliament passed the amending bill on 24 February 2016 and it received assent five days later; its licensing provisions commenced on 29 October 2016.[41][5] Medicinal cannabis products could be exported from 2018. The licensing rules were simplified in 2021.[42]: para. 1.11

Cultivation

Domestic growers supply most of the illicit market, mainly indoors with hydroponic equipment. Experts consulted by the Penington Institute put the share of organised crime at perhaps 30 per cent, varying between states.[13]: 82–84 In 2019, 65.1 per cent of people who had used cannabis usually got it from a friend, 17.9 per cent from a dealer and 3.9 per cent grew their own.[13]: 81 In the Australian Capital Territory, home growing is allowed for adults where they live and out of public reach, but artificial cultivation, including hydroponics, is still prohibited.[7]: 9 Seventy-one samples of cannabis grown at home there after 2020 had a mean THC content of 8.99 per cent and less than 0.1 per cent cannabidiol.[43]

In 206 samples seized by New South Wales police from people holding 15 grams or less, the mean THC content (THC and THC-A) was 14.88 per cent and the mean CBD content 0.14 per cent. Samples of known origin from larger growing sites showed no significant difference in THC between indoor and outdoor crops.[44] Assessing claims of a large rise in the potency of cannabis in Australia, Wayne Hall and Wendy Swift found in 2000 that published data did not show a 30-fold increase in THC content.[45]

Preparations and consumption

Australian surveys distinguish hydroponic cannabis, grown indoors, from "bush" cannabis, grown outdoors without hydroponic equipment.[13]: 81 In 2026, 71 per cent of a sample of people in the capital cities who regularly use ecstasy or other stimulants had used non-prescribed cannabis or cannabinoid products in the previous six months; of the recent users, 62 per cent had used hydroponic and 53 per cent bush cannabis. The median price of a gram of bush cannabis was $20.[46]: 3 Among people who regularly inject drugs, 61 per cent had used it recently, the lowest proportion in twenty years; 88 per cent of them had used hydroponic and 33 per cent bush cannabis.[47]: 11, 59 Neither sample is representative of the general population.[46]: 2[47]: 10

In the National Drug Strategy Household Survey of 2022–23, 11.5 per cent of Australians had used cannabis in the previous twelve months, against 8.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.[7]: 19 Of all respondents, 8.6 per cent reported recreational use only, 1.0 per cent medical use only and 1.9 per cent both.[48] The National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, which counts only respondents reporting at least five occasions of use, found that 6.7 per cent of people aged 16 to 85 had used cannabis in the previous twelve months in 2020–22, the same share as in 2007.[49] Support for legalisation rose from 21 per cent in 2007 to 35 per cent in 2016 and 41 per cent in 2019.[1]: para. 1.10 In 2022–23, 80.2 per cent of people surveyed said that possession should not be a criminal offence.[7]: 7

In 2023 two medicinal cannabis products were registered for supply in Australia: Sativex (a cannabis extract registered in 2012) and Epidyolex (which contains CBD and was registered in 2020).[42]: para. 1.16 Unregistered products can be prescribed through the Therapeutic Goods Administration's Special Access Scheme and its Authorised Prescriber Scheme.[42]: para. 1.17 By August 2022 there had been 278,967 online approvals under the scheme, 99.42 per cent of them in its category B; of the category B approvals from January 2017, most were for chronic pain (59 per cent) and anxiety (23 per cent).[50]

Trade and commerce

In 2019–20 there were 12,846 detections of cannabis at the Australian border, weighing 648.6 kilograms in all. There were also 62,454 seizures within the country, weighing 10,662.6 kilograms, the highest figures on record by both number and weight.[13]: 82–83 Border seizures rose from 17 kilograms in 2011–12 to 819 kilograms in 2020–21; seizures within Australia rose from 7,349 to 19,787 kilograms.[10]

Some users in Australia called cannabis from Papua New Guinea "New Guinea Gold".[51]: 227 Philip Alpers of the Small Arms Survey wrote in 2005 that Niugini Gold, "PNG's fabled cannabis of the 1970s", was no longer sold in the major Australian markets.[52]: 27 The story of guns traded for cannabis across the Torres Strait is set out on the Papua New Guinea page.

Commonwealth criminal law sets the quantities that make an offence more serious. For cannabis plants a trafficable quantity is 10 plants or 250 grams, a marketable quantity 100 plants or 25 kilograms and a commercial quantity 1,000 plants or 250 kilograms. For cannabis other than resin and fibre the thresholds are 250 grams, 25 kilograms and 125 kilograms.[53] The import of cannabis (with its extracts and tinctures) and of cannabis resin is controlled under Schedule 4 of the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956.[54] Since the amendment of 2016 the Narcotic Drugs Act provides two kinds of cannabis licence, a medicinal cannabis licence and a cannabis research licence, each covering cultivation and production.[5]

Each state and territory deals with small amounts of cannabis in its own way. As of May 2024:[6]

Jurisdiction Response to possession of a small amount Set by
New South Wales A caution; a second caution with a health intervention by telephone Police procedure
Victoria A caution, with an optional education programme Police procedure
Queensland A warning at first, for cannabis and other illicit drugs alike Law
South Australia An expiation notice (a fine), required and with no limit on how often Law
Western Australia An education session, at police discretion, once for an adult Law
Tasmania A caution; a brief intervention the second time Police procedure
Northern Territory A fine, required and with no limit on how often Law
Australian Capital Territory No penalty for adults; a fine for young people Law

The South Australian expiation fee is $250 to $400, depending on the quantity, payable within 28 days.[6] In Queensland, where cannabis is a schedule 2 dangerous drug, producing it carries up to 15 years' imprisonment, rising to 20 years at or above the schedule 3 quantity of 500 grams or 100 plants.[25][55] In Victoria, growing cannabis without authority is an indictable offence, with up to one year's imprisonment where the court is satisfied it was not for trafficking. Possession of no more than the small quantity, 50 grams, carries up to 5 penalty units when it is not for trafficking.[24] In Western Australia a "minor cannabis related offence", involving no more than 10 grams and no plant under cultivation, allows a police officer to give the alleged offender a cannabis intervention requirement, under provisions in force since 1 August 2011.[39][56] In the Australian Capital Territory, adults may possess up to 50 grams of dried or 150 grams of fresh cannabis and grow one or two plants, with a limit of four to a household; the law for people under 18 is unchanged.[7]: 9–10

Enforcement

The New South Wales Cannabis Cautioning Scheme lets police caution an adult found with no more than 15 grams of dried cannabis. Of adults proceeded against for possession between January 2017 and February 2020, 12 per cent of Aboriginal adults were cautioned, against 44 per cent of non-Aboriginal adults.[37] In the Australian Capital Territory, charges for cannabis offences fell after the 2020 law; most of those still laid are against minors or for possessing more than 50 grams.[7]: 19

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki: No growing regions documented yet.

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki: No growing areas documented yet.

Accessions

Map

List

Accession IDNamePriorityCollectedArea
VIB-AUS-NEW-0100000001Mullumbimby General Population

Conservation status

GBIF indexes 130 preserved specimens of cannabis from Australia. Most are held by the National Herbarium of New South Wales (67), followed by the Australian National Herbarium (18) and the Tasmanian Herbarium (14).[9] The oldest, MEL 2210742A at the National Herbarium of Victoria, was gathered by W. Woolls at Richmond in 1876. It is marked "Wild" and named "Indian Hemp".[3] Later sheets come from Murrurundi (1899), Mudgee (1901, a male plant), the Botanic Gardens in Sydney (1901, cultivated) and a garden at Kogarah where it was "growing spontaneously" in 1939.[9][57] Eighty-two of the dated sheets were gathered in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Sixteen of the sheets name the police as collector or source.[9] Seed seized at Bellevue Hill in Sydney in August 1962 was grown at the Royal Botanic Gardens, where the plants stood 3.6 metres high by March 1963.[58]

Recent news

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See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee. "Chapter 1: Introduction and background". Legalising Cannabis Bill 2023 (Report). Canberra: Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Cannabis sativa L." Australian Plant Census. Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Occurrence 2437701729: Cannabis sativa L., MEL 2210742A". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Thomas, Matthew (23 February 2021). "Narcotic Drugs Amendment (Medicinal Cannabis) Bill 2021". FlagPost. Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Narcotic Drugs Amendment Act 2016(Act No. 12 of 2016), 29 February 2016, s. 2 (commencement table); Schedule 1.Parliament of Australia.Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 O'Reilly, Keelin; Ritter, Alison (June 2024). Non-criminal responses to drug use and personal possession in Australia (PDF) (Report). DPMP Bulletin No. 31. Sydney: Drug Policy Modelling Program, Social Policy Research Centre, UNSW Sydney. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 ACT Government (August 2024). Review of the operation of the Drugs of Dependence (Personal Cannabis Use) Amendment Act 2019 (PDF) (Report). Canberra. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  8. ↑ Harden, G. J. "Cannabis sativa L." New South Wales Flora Online (PlantNET). Royal Botanic Garden Sydney. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "Occurrence search: Cannabis, Australia, preserved specimens". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 Hall, Wayne D.; Dawson, Danielle; Johnson, Ben; Yimer, Tesfa M. (2026). "The evolution of Australian cannabis policies, 1967 to 2024". Addiction. 121 (9): 2561–2572. doi:10.1111/add.70414. PMC 13486931.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 "Royal Commission into Drug Trafficking [Woodward Royal Commission] (AGY-2125)". Research Data Australia. NSW State Archives and Records. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Reilly, David; Didcott, Peter; Swift, Wendy; Hall, Wayne (1998). "Long-term cannabis use: characteristics of users in an Australian rural area". Addiction. 93 (6): 837–846. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1998.9368375.x. PMID 9744119.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Gelb, Karen; Richards, Emma; Ryan, John (December 2022). Cannabis in Australia 2022: Technical Report (PDF) (Report). Melbourne: Penington Institute. ISSN 2653-7087. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  14. ↑ Clough, Alan R.; Guyula, Terrence; Yunupingu, Maymuna; Burns, Christopher B. (2002). "Diversity of substance use in eastern Arnhem Land (Australia): patterns and recent changes". Drug and Alcohol Review. 21 (4): 349–356. doi:10.1080/0959523021000023207. PMID 12537704.
  15. ↑ Clough, Alan R.; d'Abbs, Peter; Cairney, Sheree; Gray, Dennis; Maruff, Paul; Parker, Robert; O'Reilly, Bridie (2004). "Emerging patterns of cannabis and other substance use in Aboriginal communities in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory: a study of two communities". Drug and Alcohol Review. 23 (4): 381–390. doi:10.1080/09595230412331324509. PMID 15763742.
  16. ↑ Lee, K. S. Kylie; Clough, Alan R.; Jaragba, Muriel J.; Conigrave, Katherine M.; Patton, George C. (2008). "Heavy cannabis use and depressive symptoms in three Aboriginal communities in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory". Medical Journal of Australia. 188 (10): 605–608. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2008.tb01803.x. PMID 18484938.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Senate Legal and Constitutional Affairs Legislation Committee. "Chapter 2: Key issues". Legalising Cannabis Bill 2023 (Report). Canberra: Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  18. ↑ Judd, Bridget (14 March 2021). "Mullumbimby is known as the anti-vaccination capital, but a group of locals is changing the narrative". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  19. ↑ White, Leah; Rennie, Emma (13 May 2023). "Celebrations are underway to mark the 50th anniversary of 1973 counter-culture Nimbin Aquarius festival". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  20. ↑ McHardy, Mike (10 July 2014). "This is Nimbin: inside the 'refugee camp for the war on drugs'". SBS News. Special Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  21. ↑ George Barrington (attributed) (September 2012). The History of New South Wales (1st (1802) and 2nd (nominally 1810), transcribed together ed.). Project Gutenberg Australia. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  22. ↑ Jiggens, John (9 September 2012). "Was Australia intended as a hemp colony?". Ockham's Razor. ABC Radio National. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Buhary, Nabila (November 2022). "Australia". Regulation of Hemp (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Directorate. LL File No. 2022-021696. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act 1981(Act No. 9719 of 1981), Part IVA; ss. 72B, 73; Schedule Eleven, Part 2; endnotes; authorised version 146.Parliament of Victoria.Victoria.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Drugs Misuse Act 1986(Act No. 36 of 1986), 5 September 1986, ss. 4, 8, 9; Part 5B; legislative history; reprint current as at 3 May 2024.Parliament of Queensland.Queensland.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  26. ↑ NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (September 2026). Hemp Industry New South Wales Licence Manual: Hemp Industry Act 2008 (NSW) (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  27. ↑ Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Survey of low-THC hemp seed foods: Stage 2 report (PDF) (Report). Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (October 2008). Drug Policy and Results in Australia (PDF) (Report). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 MacKay, Robin (20 December 2001). National Drug Policy: Australia (PDF) (Report). Ottawa: Library of Parliament, Parliamentary Research Branch. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  30. ↑ Narcotic Drugs Act 1967(Act No. 53 of 1967), 30 May 1967, ss. 2, 2A; Endnote 3; Compilation No. 16.Parliament of Australia.Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  31. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  32. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961: status". United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  33. ↑ "Convention on Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 16. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  34. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 19. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  35. ↑ Controlled Substances Act 1984(Act No. 52 of 1984), s. 45A; legislative history; version 1.7.2026.Parliament of South Australia.South Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  36. ↑ Misuse of Drugs Act, Part IIB; endnotes; as in force at 1 May 2016.Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory.Northern Territory.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research (7 June 2023). "Only 1 in 10 Aboriginal adults diverted from court under the NSW Cannabis Cautioning Scheme" (Press release). Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  38. ↑ Cannabis Control Act 2003(Act No. 52 of 2003), 1 October 2003, s. 2; compilation table; version 00-b0-03, as at 28 October 2010.Parliament of Western Australia.Western Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Cannabis Law Reform Act 2010(Act No. 45 of 2010), 28 October 2010, s. 2; Parts 2 and 3.Parliament of Western Australia.Western Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  40. ↑ Drugs of Dependence (Personal Cannabis Use) Amendment Act 2019(Act No. A2019-34), commencement; notified 10 October 2019.Legislative Assembly for the Australian Capital Territory.Australian Capital Territory.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  41. ↑ "Narcotic Drugs Amendment Bill 2016". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Senate Community Affairs Legislation Committee (September 2023). "Chapter 1: Introduction". Improving Access to Medicinal Cannabis Bill 2023 (Report). Canberra: Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  43. ↑ Zhou, Cilla; Lavender, Isobel; Gordon, Rebecca; McCartney, Danielle; Kevin, Richard C.; Bedoya-Pérez, Miguel A.; McGregor, Iain S. (2025). "An analysis of the cultivation, consumption and composition of home-grown cannabis following decriminalisation in the Australian Capital Territory". Scientific Reports. 15 (1) 2649. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-84897-w. PMC 11794705.
  44. ↑ Swift, Wendy; Wong, Alex; Li, Kong M.; Arnold, Jonathon C.; McGregor, Iain S. (2013). "Analysis of Cannabis Seizures in NSW, Australia: Cannabis Potency and Cannabinoid Profile". PLOS ONE. 8 (7) e70052. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070052. PMC 3722200.
  45. ↑ Hall, Wayne; Swift, Wendy (2000). "The THC content of cannabis in Australia: evidence and implications". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. 24 (5): 503–508. doi:10.1111/j.1467-842x.2000.tb00500.x. PMID 11109687.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Sutherland, Rachel; Karlsson, Antonia; Chandrasena, Udesha; et al. (2026). Australian Drug Trends 2026: Key Findings from the National Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS) Interviews (PDF) (Report). Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney. doi:10.26190/unsworks/32704. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Sutherland, Rachel; Uporova, Julia; Palmer, Lily; et al. (2026). Australian Drug Trends 2026: Key Findings from the National Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS) Interviews (PDF) (Report). Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney. doi:10.26190/unsworks/32706. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  48. ↑ Dawson, Danielle; Chan, Gary; Stjepanović, Daniel; Lorenzetti, Valentina; Hall, Wayne D.; Leung, Janni (2025). "The prevalence and correlates of self-reported cannabis use for medicinal, dual and recreational motives in Australia: Findings from the National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2022/2023". Drug and Alcohol Review. 44 (5): 1351–1364. doi:10.1111/dar.14062. PMC 12228034. PMID 40310759.
  49. ↑ Wilson, Jack; Sunderland, Matthew; O'Dean, Siobhan; et al. (2026). "Prevalence, Associations and Comorbidity of Cannabis Use and Cannabis Use Disorders in the Australian National Mental Health Surveys From 2007 to 2020-22". Drug and Alcohol Review. 45 (3) e70134. doi:10.1111/dar.70134. PMC 12968346. PMID 41797000.
  50. ↑ Hallinan, Christine Mary; Bonomo, Yvonne Ann (2022). "The Rise and Rise of Medicinal Cannabis, What Now? Medicinal Cannabis Prescribing in Australia 2017–2022". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (16) 9853. doi:10.3390/ijerph19169853. PMC 9408026. PMID 36011488.
  51. ↑ Bourke, R. Michael; Harwood, Tracy, eds. (2009). Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. Canberra: ANU Press. doi:10.22459/FAPNG.08.2009. ISBN 9781921536601.
  52. ↑ Alpers, Philip (2005). Gun-running in Papua New Guinea: From Arrows to Assault Weapons in the Southern Highlands (PDF) (Report). Special Report No. 5. Geneva: Small Arms Survey. ISBN 2-8288-0062-8. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  53. ↑ Criminal Code Regulations 2019(Legislative instrument No. F2019L00561), ss. 12, 16; Schedule 1, item 50; Compilation No. 6.Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  54. ↑ Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956(Legislative instrument No. F1996B03651), reg. 5; Schedule 4; Compilation No. 147.Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  55. ↑ Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987, Schedules 2 and 3; reprint current as at 10 September 2026.Queensland.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  56. ↑ Misuse of Drugs Act 1981, compilation table; version 08-f0-02.Parliament of Western Australia.Western Australia.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  57. ↑ "Occurrence 2827640487: Cannabis sativa L., NSW 431578". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  58. ↑ "Occurrence 2827979918: Cannabis sativa L., NSW 431597". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
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