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United States

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United States
United States
Great Smoky Mountains, Walland, Tennessee
Great Smoky Mountains, Walland, Tennessee
Capital Washington, D.C.
Continent North America
Subregion North America
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal under federal law (Schedule I); adult use regulated in 24 states
Status Since 1970
Enforcement Federal Controlled Substances Act; state laws differ; DEA eradication programme since 1979
Documentation
Growing Regions 1
Growing Areas 1
Accessions 4
Conservation
Populations none documented yet


United States is a country in North America where Cannabis sativa was a major fibre crop in the colonies and grew in Kentucky into the 20th century.[1][2] The plant is native to Asia and was introduced. Escapes from former cultivation have established populations that do best in the prairies and plains.[3][1] Federal law has listed marijuana in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act since 1970. On 28 April 2026 marijuana in a product approved by the Food and Drug Administration, or "subject to a state medical marijuana license", was moved to Schedule III; all other marijuana stayed in Schedule I.[4] As at 27 June 2025, 24 states, three territories and the District of Columbia had enacted measures to regulate and allow cannabis use for non-medical purposes.[5]: 73

In Hawaii the plant is called paka lōlō, literally "numbing tobacco".[6] A seed line from the islands, Pakalolo General Population, was listed by the Vibes Collective as a landrace of "unknown but pacific influences" with a flowering time of 12 to 15 weeks.[7]

Geography

Feral Cannabis sativa is best established in the prairies and plains of central North America. It has been reported, cultivated illegally or as an apparent ruderal, in every state except Alaska. It has been collected least often in Mississippi and Idaho.[3] In 1913 hemp was abundant as a wild plant in western Missouri, Iowa and southern Minnesota and was often found as a roadside weed throughout the Middle West.[2] It is naturalised in the Midwest and Northeast, where hemp was historically cultivated.[8]

Of the 3,105,460 sinsemilla plants destroyed by the federal eradication programme in 1987, 2,325,822 were destroyed in Hawaii, California and Tennessee, the three states that reported the most.[9] The plant is naturalised in the Hawaiian Islands, where the Smithsonian checklist of Hawaiian vascular plants of 2026 names it Cannabis sativa subsp. indica.[10]: 27

Demographics

In the National Survey on Drug Use and Health of 2022, 61.9 million people aged 12 and older reported using marijuana in the past year.[11] William H. McGlothlin wrote in 1975 that during the 1960s the population using marijuana changed from a predominantly lower socioeconomic minority group to one of middle to upper-upper status.[12]: 532

Agriculture

In 1619 the General Assembly of the Colony of Virginia, meeting at James City, required householders holding seed of "hempe also both English and Indian" to try it the next season, among other trial crops.[13] Hemp became a major crop in the American colonies because of the demand for rope in farming, shipping and war.[1] Hemp-type cultivars arrived with European colonists in the 17th century, and Chinese hemp landraces had replaced them by the middle of the 1800s.[14] The botanist Lyster H. Dewey of the Department of Agriculture dated the first crop in Kentucky to 1775, near Danville. Cultivation stopped in Massachusetts, Virginia and Pennsylvania and continued in Kentucky. The first Chinese hemp seed was imported in 1857, and in Dewey's account the larger Chinese types then replaced the common hemp of European origin.[2] Domestic production was falling by 1913, mainly for want of labour to tend the crop.[2]

Production peaked in 1943, when about 176,000 acres (71,000 hectares) were grown for fibre for the Second World War. Production halted after the war once the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was again enforced.[15] Wisconsin, a leading producer of fibre hemp in the early 1900s, harvested its last crop in 1957.[16]

The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 removed hemp from the statutory definition of marihuana and added provisions on hemp production.[17] The Department of Agriculture's final rule for a domestic hemp production programme took effect on 22 March 2021.[18]

Cannabis in the United States

History

In November 1883 Harper's New Monthly Magazine published "A Hashish-House in New York", an unsigned account, credited to the physician Harry Hubbell Kane, of a house in uptown New York where hashish was smoked and eaten.[19]: 944–949

The Pure Food and Drug Act of 30 June 1906, in force from 1 January 1907, required the label of a drug to state the quantity of any "cannabis indica" it contained, with alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, heroin and other substances.[20]

The National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, the Shafer Commission, wrote in 1972 that "marihuana smoking" became prominent in the decade after the Harrison Act, introduced in the border and Gulf states by Mexican immigrants and West Indian sailors.[21] McGlothlin dated the first significant non-medical use to around 1910.[12]: 532 The legal scholars Richard J. Bonnie and Charles H. Whitebread identified Utah's law of 1915 as the first statewide prohibition of marijuana. They linked the western laws to the assumption, then and later, that use west of the Mississippi was limited mainly to Mexican Americans, and counted 16 western states that prohibited its sale or possession before 1930.[22] A Canadian Senate committee in 2002 named California as the first state to prohibit possession, also in 1915.[23]: 113 By 1937, in the Commission's account, every state had prohibited marihuana use, either under the Uniform Act or by its own legislation.[21]

The Marihuana Tax Act of 2 August 1937 taxed dealers in marihuana and every transfer of it: $1 an ounce between registered persons and $100 an ounce otherwise, with up to five years' imprisonment for any violation. It defined marihuana as all parts of the plant Cannabis sativa L. and its resin, but excluded the mature stalks, the fibre, oil or cake made from the seed, and sterilised seed.[24] In Leary v. United States (1969) the Supreme Court reversed a conviction for failing to comply with the Act's transfer-tax provisions, holding that it violated the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination.[25]

The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 27 October 1970, whose second title is the Controlled Substances Act, listed marihuana and tetrahydrocannabinols in Schedule I. One of the findings for that schedule is that a drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States. The Act's definition of marihuana kept the 1937 exclusions.[26] The Shafer Commission, chaired by Raymond P. Shafer and set up under the same Act, recommended in 1972 that possession of marihuana for personal use no longer be an offence. It held the criminal law "too harsh a tool to apply to personal possession even in the effort to discourage use".[21]

California's Compassionate Use Act, Proposition 215, was adopted by initiative on 5 November 1996.[27] Hawaii's first medical cannabis law was Act 228 of 2000; Act 241 of 2015 provided for dispensaries.[28] Non-medical use followed: in 2012 Colorado and Washington became the first states to legalise it; by August 2023, 23 states and the District of Columbia had done so.[11]

In a letter of 29 August 2023 the Department of Health and Human Services recommended that marijuana be controlled in Schedule III.[4] The Department of Justice proposed that transfer in May 2024.[11] Executive Order 14370 of 18 December 2025 directed the Attorney General to complete the rulemaking "in the most expeditious manner".[29] On 28 April 2026 the order placing FDA-approved and state-licensed medical marijuana in Schedule III was published. A new hearing on the general proposal was set to run from 29 June to no later than 15 July 2026 at Arlington, Virginia.[4][30]

Cultivation

Drug-type cannabis reached North America gradually from the beginning of the 20th century and, in the 1970s, from the Indian subcontinent.[14] The Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program began in 1979 with combined federal, state and local efforts in Hawaii and California.[31] In 1989 the number of sinsemilla plants destroyed nationally fell by 27 per cent. The Drug Enforcement Administration put the fall down to Hawaii, which destroyed only 23,518 of the 29,160 marijuana plots sighted, and to the cutting of plants too young to be identified as sinsemilla.[31]

The University of Mississippi has grown cannabis for federally funded research since 1968.[32] In a microsatellite study of 2021, two samples obtained from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, which funds the university's cultivation, were genetically distinct from most drug-type cannabis from retail dispensaries.[33]

Analyses of cannabis seized by the Drug Enforcement Administration found the THC content of illicit plant material rising from about 4 per cent in 1995 to about 12 per cent in 2014.[34] In 14,234 samples of herbal cannabis analysed from 2009 to 2019, mean delta-9-THC rose from 9.75 per cent in 2009 to 14.88 per cent in 2018 and was 13.88 per cent in 2019. Fewer samples were received in the later years, which the authors attribute to legalisation in many states.[35]

Thirty strains bought at dispensaries in three states showed no clear genetic support for the Sativa, Indica and Hybrid labels; samples sold under one name were genetically inconsistent.[36] In 89,923 samples of commercial flower from testing laboratories in six states, the commercial labels did not consistently align with the chemical diversity measured.[37]

Trade and commerce

As at 27 June 2025, 24 states, three territories and the District of Columbia had enacted measures to regulate and allow non-medical use. Forty states, three territories and the District of Columbia allowed the medical use of cannabis products.[5]: 73 Under the federal proposal of 2024, even in Schedule III the manufacture, distribution, dispensing and possession of marijuana would remain subject to the criminal prohibitions of the Controlled Substances Act.[11]

Under the Controlled Substances Act marihuana and tetrahydrocannabinols are in Schedule I; tetrahydrocannabinols in hemp are excepted.[26][38] Since 28 April 2026 Schedule III has included marijuana "in a U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved product or subject to a state medical marijuana license". A licence of that kind is one issued by a state, the District of Columbia or a territory to manufacture, distribute or dispense marijuana for medical purposes.[4] The proposal to move marijuana as a whole to Schedule III, published in May 2024, was set for a new hearing in 2026.[11][30]

The Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 defines hemp as Cannabis sativa L. with a delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentration of not more than 0.3 per cent on a dry weight basis.[17] A law signed on 12 November 2025 rewrites the definition with effect 365 days after enactment. It counts total tetrahydrocannabinols, including tetrahydrocannabinolic acid, and excludes final hemp-derived products containing more than 0.4 milligrams per container of tetrahydrocannabinols and cannabinoids with similar effects.[39] A law of 2 September 2026 provides that until 11 December 2026 the new definition applies only to products containing cannabinoids "not capable of being naturally produced by a Cannabis sativa L. plant".[40]

The United States acceded to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs on 25 May 1967; it entered into force for the country on 24 June 1967.[41][4] The country became a party to the Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol on 1 November 1972, ratified the Convention on Psychotropic Substances on 16 April 1980 and the 1988 Convention on 20 February 1990.[42][43][44] In its report for 2023, after counting the states that regulated non-medical use, the International Narcotics Control Board stressed that article 4(c) of the 1961 Convention requires parties to limit the production, trade, use and possession of drugs exclusively to medical and scientific purposes.[45]

Enforcement

Main article: Herbicide spraying in the United States

The National Guard began supporting cannabis eradication with Operation Green Harvest in Hawaii in 1977. Its support had expanded to 53 states and territories by 1989.[31] In Hawaii, Guard helicopters lowered police task-force teams armed with machetes and side arms into the patches to cut the plants, which were then flown out. Armed troops were first used on Kauai in August 1981, after police intelligence warned of possible armed retaliation by growers.[46]

In 1987 the Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program destroyed 7,432,834 cultivated plants and over 105 million plants of "ditch weed", a low-potency marijuana. Indiana destroyed slightly over 67 million of them; Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota followed with 14, 12.4 and 9.1 million.[9] In 1989 about 5.6 million cultivated plants were destroyed and over 124 million ditchweed plants, over 73 million of them in Nebraska.[31] The figures for 1993, 4.33 million cultivated plants and 387.9 million plants of "tended ditchweed", rose mainly because the counting method changed to include tended ditchweed.[47] In 1995 the Justice Department's Inspector General defined ditchweed as scattered marijuana plants growing wild and not normally tended. In six of the 10 states audited, the statistics reported to the Drug Enforcement Administration's headquarters included eradication by agencies outside the programme.[48]

Of the specified drug types seized in connection with drug offences reported to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 2024, marijuana was the most frequent, in 386,540 incidents.[49]

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki:

Region
Midwestern United States

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki:

Growing AreaHas growing region
Lower Missouri ValleyMidwestern United States

Accessions

Map

List

Accession IDNameCollectedArea
Plowman s.n., Easton (1974)Plowman s.n. herbarium specimen, below Reavis Spring Hill Prairie, south of Easton, Illinois (1974)
Plowman s.n., Roxbury (1973), ECON 00946341Plowman s.n. herbarium specimen, Roxbury, Boston (3 October 1973)
Plowman s.n., Roxbury (1973), MO 2605928Plowman s.n. herbarium specimen, Roxbury, Boston (1 October 1973)
VIB-USA-HAW-0100000001Pakalolo General Population

Conservation status

The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) holds data on 2,854 preserved herbarium specimens of Cannabis from the United States. The oldest dated is one gathered by J. W. Congdon in Rhode Island in September 1821; others followed in New York and Michigan in 1838 and from George Engelmann at St. Louis in 1839.[50] Nineteen of them are from Hawaii. The oldest of these was gathered by A. M. Bangs at Pauoa, Oahu, on 11 November 1937 and is at the Bishop Museum. The Honolulu Police Department brought one in from Kipapa Gulch after a raid in 1980. Plants were gathered in the Olaa Forest Reserve and elsewhere in Puna and in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park between 1980 and 1982.[51]

Hemp grown from the 18th to the 20th century escaped and established feral populations across the country. Aina and co-authors sequenced 760 feral plants from 12 states, collected in 2022 and 2023. They found five genetic clusters: Mississippi River, two in the West North Central states, New York and Indiana. At the CBDA synthase locus, 78 per cent of the plants were chemotype III, 15 per cent type II and 6 per cent type I; total cannabinoid content ranged from 0.21 to 4.73 per cent. The authors conclude that Midwestern "feral hemp" does not neatly fit the statutory definition of hemp and is better called feral cannabis.[15] Feral plants from 17 counties of Nebraska were much closer to hemp-type than to drug-type cannabis.[52] In a whole-genome study, two feral plants from the United States grouped with feral plants and landraces from China; the authors trace them most likely to Chinese landraces of the 19th century.[14] A resequencing study found signs of local adaptation in the feral plants from the United States: six loci related to stress response under balancing selection and one disease-resistance gene under positive selection.[53]

In the late 20th century cannabis collections in North America were confiscated or, in some cases, reported destroyed by regulatory authorities.[54] Writing in 2017, Ernest Small found no conventional public genebank in North America from which cannabis could be obtained or in which it could be deposited.[55] Hemp germplasm was kept out of the National Plant Germplasm System until the Agricultural Research Service set up a hemp repository at Geneva, New York, in 2021. In 2025 it held 581 accessions, 57 of them available for distribution.[15] The repository's own count is more than 600 accessions from 35 countries.[56]

Recent news

ArticleDateCategory
News:1990-08-01/Eradication/dea-hawaiis-land-department-and-the-national-guard-spray-and-cut-marijuana-in-operation-wipeoutEradication
News:1983-08-19/Eradication/dea-helicopter-sprays-paraquat-on-three-marijuana-plots-at-bullskin-ridge-in-kentuckyEradication
News:1983-08-12/Eradication/dea-and-georgia-begin-spraying-marijuana-with-paraquat-in-the-chattahoochee-national-forestEradication
News:1982-08-28/Eradication/florida-police-spray-a-marijuana-field-at-red-bay-with-paraquatEradication

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Small, Ernest. "Cannabis". Flora of North America. eFloras. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Dewey, Lyster H. (1914). "Hemp". Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 1913. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 283–346.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Small, Ernest. "Cannabis sativa". Flora of North America, Vol. 3. Retrieved 11 October 2026 – via eFloras.org.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Drug Enforcement Administration (28 April 2026). "Schedules of Controlled Substances: Rescheduling of Food and Drug Administration Approved Products Containing Marijuana From Schedule I to Schedule III; Corresponding Change to Permit Requirements". Federal Register. 91 (81): 22714–22723. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 International Narcotics Control Board (2026). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2025 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-154655-2. E/INCB/2025/1. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  6. ↑ "paka lōlō". Wehewehe Wikiwiki. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  7. ↑ "Pakalolo". Vibes Collective Strainguide. Archived from the original on 27 July 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  8. ↑ Canadian Food Inspection Agency (3 March 2021). "The Biology of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabis, hemp, marijuana)". Biology document BIO2020-02. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Drug Enforcement Administration, Cannabis Investigations Section (December 1987). 1987 Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (PDF) (Report). Washington: U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 114531. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  10. ↑ Wagner, Warren L.; Khan, Nancy; Lorence, David H.; Flynn, Timothy W.; Wood, Kenneth R. (2026). Checklist of Native and Naturalized Hawaiian Vascular Plants. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press. doi:10.5479/si.32124043.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Department of Justice (21 May 2024). "Schedules of Controlled Substances: Rescheduling of Marijuana". Federal Register. 89: 44597–44622. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 McGlothlin, William H. (1975). "Sociocultural Factors in Marihuana Use in the United States". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 531–548. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.531.
  13. ↑ "Proceedings of the Virginia Assembly, 1619". America's Oldest Legislative Assembly and Its Jamestown Statehouses. National Park Service. Retrieved 14 October 2026 – via npshistory.com.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Ren, G.; Zhang, X.; Li, Y.; Ridout, K.; Serrano-Serrano, M.L.; Yang, Y.; Liu, A.; Ravikanth, G.; Nawaz, M.A.; Mumtaz, A.S.; Salamin, N.; Fumagalli, L. (2021). "Large-scale whole-genome resequencing unravels the domestication history of Cannabis sativa". Science Advances. 7 (29) eabg2286. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg2286.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Aina, Ademola; Wenger, Jonathan P.; Stanton, Eliot; Majumdar, Chandrani Gon; ElSohly, Mahmoud; Weiblen, George D.; Ellison, Shelby (1 July 2025). "Genetic diversity, population structure, and cannabinoid variation in feral Cannabis sativa germplasm from the United States". Scientific Reports. 15 (1) 20423. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-07912-8. PMC 12215616.
  16. ↑ Ortmeier-Clarke, Haleigh; Arneson, Nick; Ellison, Shelby; Conley, Shawn; Werle, Rodrigo (2020). "Industrial Hemp (Grain, Fiber and CBD) Research in Wisconsin: Lessons from Year 1". Wisconsin Crop Management Conference. University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Agronomy. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018(Public Law No. 115-334), 20 December 2018, ss. 10113, 12619; 132 Stat. 4490.115th Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  18. ↑ Agricultural Marketing Service (19 January 2021). "Establishment of a Domestic Hemp Production Program". Federal Register. 86 (11): 5596–5691. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  19. ↑ Kane, H. H. (November 1883). "A hashish-house in New York: the curious adventures of an individual who indulged in a few pipefuls of the narcotic hemp". Harper's New Monthly Magazine. 67 (402): 944–949 – via National Library of Medicine.
  20. ↑ An Act for preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes(Public Act No. 384), 30 June 1906, ss. 8, 13; 34 Stat. 768.59th Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (1972). Marihuana: A Signal of Misunderstanding. First Report of the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (Report). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 14 October 2026 – via Wellcome Collection.
  22. ↑ Bonnie, Richard J.; Whitebread, Charles H. (1970). "The Forbidden Fruit and the Tree of Knowledge: An Inquiry into the Legal History of American Marijuana Prohibition". Virginia Law Review. 56 (6). doi:10.2307/1071903.
  23. ↑ Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs (September 2002). Cannabis: Our Position for a Canadian Public Policy. Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs, Volume I: Parts I and II (PDF) (Report). Ottawa: Senate of Canada. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  24. ↑ Marihuana Tax Act of 1937(Public Act No. 238), 2 August 1937, 50 Stat. 551.75th Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  25. ↑ Leary v. United States 395 U.S. 6. Supreme Court of the United States (19 May 1969). Retrieved 11 October 2026.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970(Public Law No. 91-513), 27 October 1970, ss. 102(15), 202; 84 Stat. 1236.91st Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  27. ↑ "Health and Safety Code, section 11362.5". California Legislative Information. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  28. ↑ "Laws and Rules". Medical Cannabis Registry Program. Hawaii Department of Health. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  29. ↑ Executive Office of the President (23 December 2025). "Executive Order 14370 of December 18, 2025: Increasing Medical Marijuana and Cannabidiol Research". Federal Register. 90 (244): 60541–60543. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Drug Enforcement Administration (28 April 2026). "Schedules of Controlled Substances: Rescheduling of Marijuana". Federal Register. 91: 22777–22778. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Drug Enforcement Administration, Cannabis Investigations Section. 1989 Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (PDF) (Report). Washington: U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 126492. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  32. ↑ "History". Marijuana Research. School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi. Archived from the original on 24 January 2026. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
  33. ↑ Schwabe, Anna L.; Hansen, Connor J.; Hyslop, Richard M.; McGlaughlin, Mitchell E. (29 September 2021). "Comparative Genetic Structure of Cannabis sativa Including Federally Produced, Wild Collected, and Cultivated Samples". Frontiers in Plant Science. 12 675770. doi:10.3389/fpls.2021.675770. PMC 8544287.
  34. ↑ ElSohly, Mahmoud A.; Mehmedic, Zlatko; Foster, Susan; Gon, Chandrani; Chandra, Suman; Church, James C. (April 2016). "Changes in cannabis potency over the last 2 decades (1995–2014): analysis of current data in the United States". Biological Psychiatry. 79 (7): 613–619. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.01.004. PMID 26903403.
  35. ↑ ElSohly, Mahmoud A.; Chandra, Suman; Radwan, Mohammed; Majumdar, Chandrani Gon; Church, James C. (June 2021). "A Comprehensive Review of Cannabis Potency in the United States in the Last Decade". Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 6 (6): 603–606. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.12.016.
  36. ↑ Schwabe, Anna L.; McGlaughlin, Mitchell E. (2019). "Genetic tools weed out misconceptions of strain reliability in Cannabis sativa: implications for a budding industry". Journal of Cannabis Research. 1 (1) 3. doi:10.1186/s42238-019-0001-1.
  37. ↑ Smith, Christiana J.; Vergara, Daniela; Keegan, Brian; Jikomes, Nick (2022). "The phytochemical diversity of commercial Cannabis in the United States". PLOS ONE. 17 (5) e0267498. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0267498.
  38. ↑ "21 U.S.C. 812: Schedules of controlled substances". United States Code, 2024 Edition. U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  39. ↑ Continuing Appropriations, Agriculture, Legislative Branch, Military Construction and Veterans Affairs, and Extensions Act, 2026(Public Law No. 119-37), 12 November 2025, div. B, s. 781.119th Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  40. ↑ Continuing Appropriations and Extensions Act, 2027(Public Law No. 119-103), 2 September 2026, div. B, s. 2019.119th Congress.United States.Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  41. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  42. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961: status". United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  43. ↑ "Convention on Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 16. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  44. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 19. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  45. ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2024). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2023 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-003052-6. E/INCB/2023/1.
  46. ↑ "1978–2009 Operation Green Harvest". HING History. State of Hawaii Department of Defense. 2 January 2025. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  47. ↑ "Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program, 1993". National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Office of Justice Programs. NCJ 152429. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  48. ↑ Office of the Inspector General, U.S. Department of Justice (April 1995). The Drug Enforcement Administration's Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program (Report). Audit Report 95-20. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  49. ↑ Federal Bureau of Investigation (August 2025). UCR Summary of Reported Crimes in the Nation, 2024 (PDF) (Report). U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  50. ↑ "Occurrence search: Cannabis, United States, preserved specimens". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  51. ↑ "Occurrence search: Cannabis, Hawaii, preserved specimens". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  52. ↑ Busta, Lucas; Dweikat, Ismail; Sato, Shirley J.; Qu, Haolin; Xue, Yong; Zhou, Bangjun; Gan, Lu; Yu, Bin; Clemente, Thomas E.; Cahoon, Edgar B.; Zhang, Chi (August 2022). "Chemical and genetic variation in feral Cannabis sativa populations across the Nebraska climate gradient". Phytochemistry. 200 113206. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2022.113206.
  53. ↑ Woods, P.; Price, N.; Matthews, P.; McKay, J.K. (2023). "Genome-wide polymorphism and genic selection in feral and domesticated lineages of Cannabis sativa". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 13 (2) jkac209. doi:10.1093/g3journal/jkac209.
  54. ↑ Welling, M.T.; Shapter, T.; Rose, T.J.; Liu, L.; Stanger, R.; King, G.J. (2016). "A belated green revolution for Cannabis: virtual genetic resources to fast-track cultivar development". Frontiers in Plant Science. 7 1113. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.01113.
  55. ↑ Small, E. (2018). "Dwarf germplasm: the key to giant Cannabis hempseed and cannabinoid crops". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 65 (4): 1071–1107. doi:10.1007/s10722-017-0597-y.
  56. ↑ Stansell, Zachary; Gordon, Tyler. "Hemp Collection". Plant Genetic Resources Unit, Geneva, New York. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
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