Moroccan hashish trade
More actions
| From | Rif Mountains, Ketama |
|---|---|
| By way of | Spain |
| To | France, Netherlands |
| How it travelled | Mixed |
| What moved | Hashish |
|---|---|
| Carried by | European travellers at first; then Moroccan and European traffickers and middlemen |
| Scale | About 3,080 tonnes of resin from 134,000 hectares in 2003 (UNODC survey estimate) |
| Active | 1960s to the present |
|---|---|
| Status | Still in use |
| Legal status | Illegal |
The Moroccan hashish trade is the export of cannabis resin made in the Rif Mountains of northern Morocco, mainly to Western Europe by way of Spain and in smaller part eastwards through Algeria and the rest of North Africa. Growers in the Rif began making hashish for export in the 1960s, when European demand for the drug was rising; before then their crop had been smoked in Morocco as kif.[1]: 417–418 From the early 1980s Moroccan resin became dominant on Western European markets.[2]: 53, 59 In 2019 the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and Europol still named the Rif as the region of origin of most of the resin available in Europe.[3]: 82 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) called North Africa in 2025 "the main hub for interregional trafficking in cannabis resin to Western Europe".[4]: 33 The trade is illegal in Morocco and in the countries it supplies. Morocco's Law 13-21 of 2021 allowed cannabis to be grown, processed and exported under licence for medical, pharmaceutical and industrial purposes in three provinces of the Rif, and the first legal crop was harvested in 2023.[5]: 1–2
Origins
Until the 1960s the Rif grew cannabis for kif, dried cannabis mixed with shredded tobacco and smoked in a pipe. Small farmers gave only a few plots to it, for their own use and for the local market.[6] Cultivation was tolerated in a limited historic zone of the central Rif and covered probably less than 10,000 hectares at the end of the 1970s.[1]: 418
The geographer Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy and Kenza Afsahi attribute the turn from kif to hashish to European demand, which grew in the 1960s and above all in the 1970s and 1980s, together with an economic crisis in the Rif that emigration and remittances did not offset.[1]: 418 Chouvy adds the arrival of Morocco as a destination for hippies, the effect of the war in Lebanon (1975–1990) on Lebanese hashish, and the Rif's position on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, close to the European market.[7]: 3840 Resin is less bulky than the herb, easier to carry and can be stored and sold the year after it is made.[6] Alain Labrousse and Lluis Romero, reporting for the French drugs observatory (OFDT) in 2001, dated the processing of kif in Morocco to after 1960, introduced to meet the demand of foreign markets by making the product more valuable and easier to export.[8]: 12
Accounts of who brought the sieving method to the Rif differ. Afsahi writes that European hippies who had learnt it on journeys to Lebanon or Afghanistan were partly responsible, and that they were the first to carry the product to Europe before professional smugglers took the trade over.[6] Labrousse and Romero have the techniques imported from Lebanon, Pakistan, Afghanistan or the Netherlands, probably on the initiative of both foreigners and traffickers from Ketama.[8]: 12 Chouvy, following Robert Connell Clarke, gives two accounts: Europeans who brought the technique from Afghanistan, and an Algerian who reproduced the Lebanese method.[9]: para. 20 Chouvy and Afsahi judge a Lebanese origin most likely, and report a cannabis specialist's account that the early Moroccan hashish tasted like "Red Lebanese".[1]: 418
In 2012 the EMCDDA found that some authors placed the start of large-scale resin making in the mid-1960s and others in the 1970s.[2]: 52 Chouvy places it in the middle or late 1960s.[10]: para. 1 Juan Francisco Gamella and Maria Luisa Jiménez Rodrigo describe growers of the Ketama region whose produce was distributed from the late 1960s by "hippie entrepreneurs".[11]: 264 The first single seizure of more than 100 kilograms of cannabis in the Netherlands, in 1971, was of Moroccan hashish, and by the early 1970s resin from the Rif was regularly smuggled into Europe.[12]: 252, 256 Through the 1970s Moroccan hashish, sold in Europe as "double zero" or "Ketama Gold", competed with Lebanese, Turkish, Afghan and Nepalese resins.[6]
Growth
Europe's hashish market had been supplied mainly from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Lebanon. When the wars in Lebanon (1975–1991) and Afghanistan (1979–1989) disrupted those sources, large-scale production in Morocco increased.[13] The EMCDDA dates the large-scale arrival of Moroccan resin in Europe to the early 1980s, after which it became dominant on Western European markets at the expense of Afghan and Lebanese resin.[2]: 53, 59 By the early 1990s the 250-gram "soap bar" of low-grade Moroccan resin held what the EMCDDA calls a quasi-monopoly of the Western European market.[13]
Afsahi calls the 1980s and 1990s "the beginning of the industrialisation of hashish": demand in Europe rose sharply, distribution networks were strengthened and cultivation spread into the provinces around the original area.[6] Chouvy and Afsahi trace the spread as far as the provinces of Larache and Al Hoceima.[1]: 418 In the same decades a class of European and Moroccan middlemen, the beznassa, made Moroccan hashish known in Europe; some came from among Rif emigrants to the Netherlands, where hashish from the Ketama region was sold in the coffee shops.[6] The first joint survey by the UNODC and the Moroccan authorities found 134,000 hectares of cannabis in 2003, producing an estimated 3,080 tonnes of hashish, the largest area recorded.[1]: 416, 418
The route
Almost all Moroccan cannabis is grown in the Rif, the part of the country nearest Europe.[2]: 50 Most of the resin leaves through the Iberian Peninsula, and Gamella and Jiménez Rodrigo called Spain in 2008 "the crucial transit zone" for Moroccan hashish sold in Europe.[11]: 261, 264 In their account intermediaries gathered the resin in towns such as Tangier, Tétouan, Al Hoceima and Asilah and sent it to the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla or across the Strait of Gibraltar to Spain.[11]: 269 The EMCDDA links the scale of the trade to an older contraband traffic between Europe and northern Morocco through the two enclaves,[2]: 53 and Chouvy wrote in 2008 that the main export points for hashish were those of the contraband trade: Ceuta, Melilla, and Oujda on the Algerian border.[9]: para. 33
The EMCDDA and Europol name Spain as the main point of entry into Europe for Moroccan resin.[2]: 56[3]: 16, 94 Gamella and Jiménez Rodrigo found the most common route of entry to cross the provinces of Cádiz and Málaga on the Strait, with growing quantities seized as far away as Catalonia and Galicia. They suggested that tighter control of the Strait against illegal immigration may have displaced the routes.[11]: 272 The EMCDDA judged from seizure sizes that Portugal and Ireland were also entry points, and named the Netherlands and Belgium as both entry points and distribution centres.[2]: 113, 208, 216, 219 Labrousse and Romero reported in 2001 that resin was also shipped from Atlantic ports in the south of Morocco, such as Agadir and Essaouira, generally to the Netherlands, Belgium or Germany.[8]: 22
From Spain, Gamella and Jiménez Rodrigo wrote, the resin went on to the rest of Europe, directly or through the Netherlands, a second distribution centre for northern Europe.[11]: 269 The EMCDDA and Europol reported in 2016 that many shipments for France were organised in and left from Spain, especially Andalusia, and that the Netherlands and to a lesser extent Belgium supplied Scandinavia through Germany, and Russia and Belarus through Poland and the Baltic states.[14]: 67 Chouvy and Afsahi called France and Spain the two largest consumer markets for Moroccan resin.[1]: 419
The UNODC found that the direct route from Morocco through Libya to Italy, which carried 66 per cent of the identified shipments of resin in 2013, had lost importance by 2017, when most Moroccan resin reached Italy through Spain and France. Traffic from Morocco through Algeria to Libya also fell, and Algeria's seizures in 2017 were 75 per cent below those of 2013.[15]: 15 In 2019 the EMCDDA and Europol reported some diversification of routes into the European Union. After Spain, France and Italy seized the most resin; Turkey, which seized the fourth-largest quantity in 2017 and named Morocco as its source, might also have become an entry point.[3]: 95–96 Resin was moving along several branches of the Mediterranean sea route and along a land route across North Africa to Libya, which the two agencies described as a major storage and transit hub for resin from Morocco and Lebanon.[3]: 83, 96 In 2022 Spain's seizures of resin fell by 52 per cent, from 673 to 325 tonnes, and the EMCDDA suggested that traffickers moving resin from North Africa to Europe may have adapted their routes to Spanish enforcement.[16]
Eastward through North Africa
Algeria produces no cannabis resin but shares a long border with Morocco and lies on a major trafficking route for Moroccan resin; it reported seizing about 75 tonnes of resin of Moroccan origin in 2009.[2]: 57 Anouar Boukhars of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace wrote in 2019 that seizures in Algeria had risen substantially since 2015, and attributed the rise to stronger security on the border between Spain and Morocco, which had driven more of the trade east. In his account the route through the Algerian province of Tlemcen towards Ghardaïa, Ouargla and El Oued was a primary conduit to Libya, Tunisia, Egypt and finally Eastern Europe, while resin reaching Oran and Algiers was shipped on to France, Italy and Spain.[17] The EMCDDA and Europol named Egypt, possibly Sudan and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula as possible markets for resin shipped to Libya besides the European Union, while noting that firm evidence of trafficking from Libya into the Union was lacking.[3]: 96 In 2026 the UNODC reported that most of the resin seized in North Africa was still recorded as leaving from Morocco. Resin carried overland to Libya went either through Algeria or through the Sahel, by way of Mauritania and Mali, and then Algeria and northern Niger. Egypt's seizures of resin, 191 tonnes in 2023, exceeded Morocco's that year.[18]: 21, 24
Traders
Afsahi describes a sequence of carriers: the first importers to Europe were travellers, mostly European, who were followed by professional smugglers, and in the 1980s and 1990s by the beznassa, the European or Moroccan middlemen.[6] The first large Dutch seizure, in 1971, was of resin brought in by a consortium of Rotterdam criminal entrepreneurs.[12]: 252 Labrousse and Romero wrote in 2001 that those who commissioned the shipments lived in Tangier, Rabat and on the Spanish Costa del Sol.[8]: 21 The EMCDDA and Europol reported in 2016 that some Moroccan criminal groups controlled the whole chain, from production in the Rif to retail sale in cities such as Marseille.[14]: 68 A value-chain study by Manuel Sánchez-Pérez and colleagues found that the smugglers who carry the resin to Spain and Portugal earn margins of about 12 per cent, against more than 70 per cent at the wholesale level in Spain and France, which serve both as consumer and intermediate markets.[19]
The goods changed in the 2000s. European police services found that the 250-gram soap bars that made up most of their seizures in the 1980s and 1990s had largely given way to 200-gram balls, 100-gram tablets and 10-gram pellets. Moroccan hashish seized in France averaged 16 per cent THC in 2012, against about 8 per cent for the old soap bars.[1]: 419 Chouvy and Afsahi link both changes to the replacement of the kif plant in the Rif by imported hybrids with higher resin yields and potency, which began in the early 2000s.[1]: 416, 420 That replacement is described at Cannabis in Morocco.
Scale
Area. Labrousse and Romero put the area under cannabis at 5,000 to 10,000 hectares at the start of the 1980s and 30,000 to 35,000 at the end of that decade.[8]: 3 Dutch and European Union estimates reported by Clarke gave 25,000 hectares in the mid-1980s, 60,000 in 1993 and 75,000 in 1995.[1]: 418 In 1992, launching a campaign against drugs, King Hassan II acknowledged 50,000 hectares.[8]: 3 After the peak of 134,000 hectares in 2003, the area fell to 120,500 hectares in 2004[20] and 72,500 hectares in 2005, when about 89,900 families were reported to be involved.[2]: 54 Later figures come from the Moroccan authorities alone: 47,500 hectares in 2010 and 2011,[1]: 419 and about 47,000 hectares, unchanged since 2010, in the data the EMCDDA and Europol cited in 2019.[3]: 93
Production. The UNODC estimated 3,080 tonnes of resin in 2003 and 1,066 tonnes in 2005; the Moroccan estimate for 2011 was 760 tonnes.[1]: 416, 419 The UNODC estimated 901 tonnes for 2022.[18]: 43 European police services, unofficially, put annual production at 2,000 to 3,000 tonnes.[1]: 419 The EMCDDA found that the combined Spanish and Moroccan seizures of 2009 implied an interception rate of about 83 per cent, against about 30 per cent in 2004, and estimated resin consumption in the European Union and Norway at around 1,300 tonnes, ten times the resin it calculated to be left over from Moroccan production.[2]: 57, 229 Chouvy and Afsahi argue that the higher yields of the hybrid plants largely offset the fall in area, so that production did not decline as far as the official figures suggest.[1]: 422
Share of the European market. Labrousse and Romero reported that Moroccan resin accounted for 80 to 90 per cent of hashish seizures in Europe, and for 95 per cent of the resin seized in France once resin coming through Spain was included.[8]: 3 Chouvy gave 80 per cent of the hashish seized in Europe in 2004, and European seizures of Moroccan hashish rising from 200 tonnes in 1985 to 950 tonnes in 2004.[9]: para. 23 The UNODC in 2007 called Morocco the source of about 70 per cent of the hashish consumed in Europe,[21]: 7 and Gamella and Jiménez Rodrigo, citing the EMCDDA, put its share of the resin consumed in Europe at over 70 per cent.[11]: 261 In reports to the UNODC for 2013–2017, Morocco was named in almost a quarter of cases as the main country of origin of resin seized worldwide. Its resin went mainly to other North African markets, where it was named as the origin in 83 per cent of reports, and to Western and Central Europe.[15]: 16
Seizures. The EMCDDA reported in 2012 that Spain had seized about three-quarters of the European total of resin each year since the mid-1990s.[2]: 56 Of the 757 tonnes of Moroccan resin seized in the European Union in 2003, 727 tonnes were seized in Spanish territory or waters.[11]: 264 Spain's share was 72 per cent in 2017[3]: 94 and 69 per cent in 2022, when the European Union as a whole seized 468 tonnes of resin, against 816 tonnes in 2021.[16] Morocco reported to the International Narcotics Control Board seizures of over 450 tonnes of resin in 2020,[22]: para. 472 over 511 tonnes in 2021 and over 300 tonnes in 2022,[23]: para. 457 about 169 tonnes in 2023[24]: para. 433 and about 345 tonnes in 2024.[25]: para. 325
People and value. The 2003 survey counted 96,600 families growing cannabis.[20]: 5 The UNODC put the value of the market in Moroccan resin at about 4.6 billion euros in 2005, from the 693 tonnes it estimated to have reached the international market.[26]: 23
Regulation and enforcement
Cannabis is prohibited in Morocco by the dahir of 24 April 1954 on kif hemp and the drug law of 21 May 1974; Law 13-21 makes its licensed activities an exception to both, and leaves unlicensed production and trade punishable under the 1974 law.[27]: 1172, 1180 Cultivation was nevertheless tolerated in the Rif after independence; Hassan II declared a "war on drugs" in September 1992, which, by the UNODC's 2003 assessment, fell short of its aims.[1]: 418
After the 2003 survey the area under cannabis fell. The UNODC attributed the fall of 2005 to drought and to awareness and forced eradication campaigns by the Moroccan authorities, whose figures it did not verify. Of the 15,160 hectares reported eradicated in 2005, 12,000 were in Larache province, where the survey had found 3,917 hectares of cannabis.[1]: 419 The UNODC office in Morocco closed in 2006, and the 2005 survey was the last of the joint series.[1]: 419 The United States Department of State reported that forced eradication stopped in 2011.[1]: 422
Under the European Union's EMPACT programme, operations have targeted the groups involved in wholesale trafficking of resin across the Mediterranean, particularly from Morocco, Libya and Lebanon.[3]: 216
Law 13-21
Morocco's parliament voted on 26 May 2021 to legalise the cultivation of cannabis for "medical, cosmetic and industrial purposes".[5]: 2 Law 13-21 on the licit uses of cannabis was promulgated on 14 July 2021 and published in the Bulletin officiel on 5 August 2021. It allows cultivation, production, processing, transport and export of cannabis and its products, and the import and export of seeds and plants, under licence.[27]: 1172 Licences are issued by a new public body, the National Agency for the Regulation of Activities relating to Cannabis (ANRAC), based in Rabat.[27]: 1172, 1176 Cultivation may be licensed only in provinces fixed by decree;[27]: 1172 a decree of 18 March 2022 named Al Hoceima, Chefchaouen and Taounate.[28] A grower must live in a douar of one of those provinces, belong to a cooperative formed for the purpose and deliver the whole crop to it.[27]: 1173 Cannabis and its products may be marketed and exported only for medical, pharmaceutical or industrial purposes, and export without a licence is punished under the 1974 drug law.[27]: 1175, 1180 Varieties above a THC level fixed by regulation, set at 1 per cent in 2022, may be licensed only for the medical and pharmaceutical industries.[27]: 1173[5]: 3
The first legal crop, in 2023, covered 286 hectares; in 2024 the authorities approved 2,552 hectares in the three provinces.[5]: 2 About 100 kilograms of hashish low in THC and rich in CBD from the 2023 harvest were exported to Switzerland, and in March 2024 the agency added the kif plant to the list of authorised varieties for medical and pharmaceutical use.[5]: 6 In April 2026 the agency's director, Mohamed El Guerrouj, reported 3,141 hectares of licit cannabis harvested in 2025, 2,622 of them of the local variety, and Moroccan cannabis products present in France, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Portugal, Australia and South Africa.[29]
Chouvy wrote in 2025 that Morocco had failed to remove illegal cultivation from the Rif while turning a small part of the industry into a legal one,[5]: 2 and that whether the country was still the world's leading producer of hashish could not be determined for lack of reliable recent data.[5]: 1
See also
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud; Afsahi, Kenza (2014). "Hashish revival in Morocco". International Journal of Drug Policy. 25 (3): 416–423. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.01.001.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2012). Cannabis Production and Markets in Europe. EMCDDA Insights 12. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. doi:10.2810/52425. ISBN 978-92-9168-502-8.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction; Europol (2019). EU Drug Markets Report 2019 (PDF) (Report). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. doi:10.2810/561192. ISBN 978-92-9497-422-8.
- ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2025). World Drug Report 2025: Special Points of Interest (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2025). "Policy reform and the international future of Moroccan Cannabis production". International Journal of Drug Policy. 142 104841. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2025.104841.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Afsahi, Kenza (2015). "Are Moroccan cannabis growers able to adapt to recent European market trend?". International Journal of Drug Policy. 26 (3): 327–329. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.11.012.
- ↑ Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2022). "Moroccan hashish as an example of a cannabis terroir product". GeoJournal. 88 (4): 3833–3850. doi:10.1007/s10708-022-10791-5.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Labrousse, Alain; Romero, Lluis (December 2001). Rapport sur la situation du cannabis dans le Rif marocain (juin–août 2001) (Report) (in français). Paris: Observatoire français des drogues et des toxicomanies.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2008). "Production de cannabis et de haschich au Maroc : contexte et enjeux". L'Espace Politique (in français) (4). doi:10.4000/espacepolitique.59.
- ↑ Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2018). "Du kif au haschich : évolution de l'industrie du cannabis au Maroc". Bulletin de l'Association de géographes français (in français). 95 (2): 308–321. doi:10.4000/bagf.3337.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Gamella, Juan Francisco; Jiménez Rodrigo, Maria Luisa (2008). "Multinational export–import ventures: Moroccan hashish into Europe through Spain". In Rödner Sznitman, Sharon; Olsson, Börje; Room, Robin (eds.). A cannabis reader: global issues and local experiences. EMCDDA Monographs. Vol. 8, vol. 1. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. pp. 261–284. ISBN 978-92-9168-311-6.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Snelders, Stephen (2021). "Cannabis, counterculture, and criminals: the rise of smuggling in the Netherlands, ca. 1962–1976". In Richert, Lucas; Mills, James H. (eds.). Cannabis: Global Histories. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. pp. 247–268. doi:10.7551/mitpress/12102.003.0016.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (31 May 2016). Changes in Europe's cannabis resin market (PDF) (Report). Perspectives on Drugs. Lisbon: EMCDDA.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction; Europol (2016). EU Drug Markets Report: In-depth Analysis (PDF) (Report). Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. doi:10.2810/219411. ISBN 978-92-9168-843-2.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (June 2019). World Drug Report 2019. Booklet 5: Cannabis and Hallucinogens (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-148314-7.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (11 June 2024). "Cannabis – the current situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2024)". European Drug Report 2024.
- ↑ Boukhars, Anouar (19 March 2019). Barriers Versus Smugglers: Algeria and Morocco's Battle for Border Security (Report). Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (January 2026). Drug Trafficking Dynamics in Libya and across North Africa (2020–2024): Trends and Implications (PDF) (Report). United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
- ↑ Sánchez-Pérez, Manuel; Marín-Carrillo, María Belén; Illescas-Manzano, María Dolores; Souilim, Zohair (2023). "Understanding the illegal drug supply chain structure: a value chain analysis of the supply of hashish to Europe". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 10 (1): 276. doi:10.1057/s41599-023-01770-3.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; Agence pour la Promotion et le Développement Economique et Social des Préfectures et Provinces du Nord du Royaume (May 2005). Maroc: Enquête sur le cannabis 2004 (PDF) (Report) (in français). UNODC.
- ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2007). World Drug Report 2007 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-148222-5.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2022). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2021 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-148367-3. E/INCB/2021/1. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2024). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2023 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-003052-6. E/INCB/2023/1.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2025). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2024 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-003415-9. E/INCB/2024/1.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2026). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2025 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-154655-2. E/INCB/2025/1. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
- ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; Agence pour la Promotion et le Développement Economique et Social des Préfectures et Provinces du Nord du Royaume (January 2007). Maroc: Enquête sur le cannabis 2005 (PDF) (Report) (in français). UNODC.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 "Loi n° 13-21 relative aux usages licites du cannabis" [Law no. 13-21 on the licit uses of cannabis] (PDF). Bulletin Officiel (in français) (7010) (Édition de traduction officielle ed.). Rabat. 5 August 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ "Décret n° 2-22-159 du 15 chaabane 1443 (18 mars 2022) pris pour l'application de certaines dispositions de la loi n° 13-21 relative aux usages licites du cannabis" (PDF). Bulletin Officiel (in français) (7080) (Édition de traduction officielle ed.). Rabat: 527. 7 April 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2026.
- ↑ "Cannabis licite: production, autorisations, exportations... Les chiffres de 2025 dévoilés". H24Info (in français). Maghreb Arabe Presse. 22 April 2026.