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Myanmar

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Myanmar
မြန်မာ (Myanma)
Temples at Bagan
Temples at Bagan
Capital Naypyidaw
Continent Asia
Subregion Southeast Asia
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal
Status Since 1993
Enforcement Cultivation carries five to ten years' imprisonment
Documentation
Growing Regions 4
Growing Areas 10
Accessions 6
Conservation
Populations none documented yet


Myanmar, formerly Burma, is a country in Southeast Asia. In 1893 hemp grew in homestead plots in the Shan and Danu country, in fibre fields among the Kachin, Palaung and Lawa peoples and in gardens and yards on the plains of Upper Burma.[1][2] Ganja was sold under licence in British Burma until 1872, and its cultivation and consumption were prohibited from the start of 1873–74.[3][4] The Government of India later called Burma the one case in which its policy on the hemp drugs had been "definitely abandoned".[5] The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission found in 1894 that the prohibition "has not been effectual" and recommended licensed sale to Indian consumers, with cultivation still banned.[6]

Cannabis remains prohibited under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law of 1993, amended in 2018.[7][8] Since 2022–23 villages in Ayadaw Township in Sagaing Region have turned from rice, beans, betel nut and cotton to cannabis.[9] In Lu Thaw, in northern Kayin State, the Karen National Union said in 2013 that villagers displaced by the army had begun growing it around 2011; a Karen Human Rights Group report from the district said that the army had asked villagers to grow it.[10][11] In Demoso Township in Kayah State, the owner of a cannabis dispensary under the protection of a Karenni resistance force said in 2023 that he was growing cannabis on about 100 acres.[12] The Real Seed Company has sold three successive collections of a ganja landrace from Shan State.[13]

Geography

Myanmar runs from the eastern Himalaya down a long coast to the Andaman Sea, with the Shan plateau along its eastern border.[citation needed] In 1893 the plant grew in the Shan uplands and in the Danu country of the Myelat, "between Burma and the Shan States proper", where Shans and Danu raised a few plants by the house. The Kachins living with the Shans of Nyaungywe grew hemp for fibre. On the plains of Upper Burma round Mandalay, Kyaukse, Meiktila and Sagaing, officials found plants in gardens and yards.[1][14][15] In Mandalay district the plant was grown where the rainfall ran from 30 to 50 inches a year, between about 300 and 3,600 feet above sea level.[16]

Witnesses disagreed on whether the plant grew wild. The Commissioner of Pegu had seen it on the rubbish heaps outside three villages in Upper Burma, "a mere weed not grown for any purpose".[17] The Deputy Commissioner of the Upper Chindwin wrote that it "Does not grow spontaneously, but very luxuriantly, when planted, everywhere in Burma."[18] The Commission accepted no more than "a casual growth in the neighbourhood of villages" in the settled districts and thought the plant "probably has run wild in the Kachin country and in the mountain ranges adjoining China, Assam, Manipur, Lushai, and Tippera". The "wild hemp" sent from Arakan proved to be two species of Sida, and the Commission distrusted a report of extensive wild growth in Mergui.[19] In June 1897 Lieutenant Eldred Pottinger collected the plant at Mate, a camp at 1,500 feet north-east of Myitkyina; the paper he wrote with David Prain called it "apparently wild".[20]

Demographics

Communities with cannabis relationships

  • Shan. Saw Maung, the former ruler of the Shan state of Nyaungywe, told the Commission that Shans grew only a few plants here and there for the drug. About two Shan men in a hundred smoked it; women never did.[2] The Real Seed Company calls Shan State, the source of its Burmese collections, an ethnically Tai region and its seed line a Tai ganja landrace.[13] See Shan people.
  • Danu. On hearsay, the Commissioner of the Eastern Division wrote that in the Danu country "every man grows a few plants for his own consumption".[14] Saw Maung said the Danu villages of his state grew and used it in the same way as the Shans. The Commission judged the practice "more common among the Danus than the Shans".[2][1] See Danu people.
  • Palaung, Kachin and Lawa. In Nyaungywe these peoples grew hemp for fibre in small fields, nearly every house with a plot.[2] The Commission wrote that in Nyaungywe the Kachin appeared to be mingled with the Shans, and described their habit "of growing the hemp on a considerable scale for fibre", which it thought probably also held among the Kachin in their own country to the north.[1] An uncle of the ruler of Hsipaw said Kachins grew it for fibre but that his state had no Kachins and grew none for the drug.[21] See Palaung people.
  • Karen. The township officer at Lew, in Yamethin district, told the Eastern Division's Commissioner that Karens had grown "large quantities" of ganja for sale to the timber traders, who used it as medicine for elephants; everyone who kept elephants was bound to keep ganja.[14] The district gazetteers of Toungoo (1914) and Tharrawaddy (1920) said that Karens grew ganja in remote parts of the Pegu Yoma.[22][23] In 2013 the Karen National Union said villagers hiding from the army in Lu Thaw had grown it for about two years.[11]
  • Burmans and Indian migrants. Officials told the Commission that the consumers were "natives of India". The Commissioner of Tenasserim put any increase down to "the large influx of natives of India (troops, military police, and followers) since the annexation of Upper Burma".[24][16] Several attributed Burman disapproval to Buddhism; the Deputy Commissioner of Sagaing wrote that a Burman Buddhist who took the drugs "would be regarded as utterly abandoned".[15]

Agriculture

Under the Burmese kings it was "no offence to sow ganja", in the words of a Yamethin officer; a former Prime Minister said the royal ban touched use and not cultivation.[14][25] In British Burma cultivation was watched through "the annual classification of crops for revenue purposes".[24]

In Ayadaw farmers who had grown rice, beans, betel nut and cotton moved to cannabis from 2022–23. A farmer from neighbouring Myinmu told The Irrawaddy in 2025 that planting 1,000 betel trees cost about 3 million kyats, against 3,000 to 3,500 kyats a cannabis plant, and that a viss of dried leaves and buds fetched up to 800,000 kyats.[9]

Cannabis in Myanmar

History

Main article: Cannabis in colonial Burma

Nathaniel Wallich collected Cannabis sativa near Ava in November 1826; the sheet, Wallich 4665 H (1826), is at Kew. John McPartland and Ernest Small found its fruits "truly intermediate" between the domesticated var. indica and the wild-type var. himalayensis.[26]

Two former officials of the last Burmese government gave the Commission their account of the royal rule. The Kinwun Mingyi, once Prime Minister, said the drug was forbidden because Buddhism forbids it, with a warning and surety for a first offence and prison for a second; the ban reached use, not cultivation. U Pe Si, Town Magistrate of Mandalay for seventeen years, said liquor, opium and ganja were all prohibited, ganja smokers being punished least.[25][27] The two disagreed on growing: the Kinwun Mingyi had never heard of hemp cultivated anywhere in Burma under Burmese rule, while U Pe Si recalled "very little" on the southern border of Upper Burma, "There would not be more than a plant in a hundred houses".[25][27] Township officers reported growers at Yamethin, Yindaw, Lew and Pindale in "Burmese times", about fifty of them at Pindale.[14]

In British Burma ganja was sold under licence until 1872.[3] Licensed vendors imported it from Calcutta and Madras.[28] Reviewing the excise report for 1870–71, the Chief Commissioner, Ashley Eden, argued for withdrawing every licence: ganja, he wrote, "is smoked only by the natives of India", and its use was "happily little known" to the Burmese. He cited the share of admissions to the Dacca asylum blamed on ganja.[4][6] The Government of India's Resolution No. 3773 of 17 December 1873 agreed that cultivation and consumption "should be absolutely prohibited" and recorded that they had been "from the beginning of the year 1873–74".[4] Import by sea was barred in September 1874. In 1878 the Chief Commissioner refused an offer to return to licensed sale, calling it "a retrograde step", and the Excise Act of 1881 carried the prohibition.[6] After the annexation of Upper Burma the excise law was extended there in 1888, and the draft opium rules sanctioned that year prohibited the sale of every other intoxicating drug.[16][29]

The Commission printed the evidence of more than fifty witnesses from Burma.[30] The Commissioner of the Eastern Division called the government's attitude "formal prohibition without strict enforcement", the same as the Burmese kings'. The excise officer at Rangoon said the ban was ineffective there, and the Commissioner of Pegu said its "prime object" had been the Burmans' interest and that object "has been fully realised".[14][31][17] The Commission concluded that the prohibition "has not been effectual" and recommended licensing the sale of ganja to natives of India "under proper control and taxation", while keeping the bans on cultivation and on use by Burmans.[6] The Government of India agreed in 1895 that the ban was "ineffectual so far as natives of India are concerned" and referred licensed sale to the Chief Commissioner.[32] In the excise papers laid before Parliament in 1914, Burma's statements for the hemp drugs were blank, and Burma's excise report said the Burman took to drugs and alcohol "with the single curious exception of ganja".[33] The province kept the ban: the provincial government dropped a proposal to legalise possession and sale in 1919–20, and the Legislative Council rejected one to legalise possession by Indians in 1933–34.[34][35]

The present statute, the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law, dates from 27 January 1993 and was amended by Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 6 of 14 February 2018.[7][8] In 2019 a lawmaker of the National League for Democracy proposed amending it to allow hemp cultivation.[36] The same year police raided a 20-acre plantation in the Myotha Industrial Park in Mandalay Region, which its operators said was growing hemp with the regional government's approval.[37][38] After the coup of 2021, from 2022–23, several villages of southern Sagaing turned to growing cannabis.[9]

Cultivation

Shan Hills. Saw Maung's state of Nyaungywe (Yawnghwe) measured about 60 miles from north to south and 28 across, with Danu villages inside it. There hemp was grown mainly for fibre; the fibre plant, gom bin, was "precisely the same plant" as the drug plant. Shans raised a few drug plants here and there; when a stem was as thick as a finger they split it, wedged in a piece of wood and hung a chatty, an earthen pot, about a foot across over the flower head for a month to thicken the head. Plants stood 7 or 8 feet and bore six or seven heads.[2] The Commission thought his account "probably typical of the practice of the Shans over a much larger area".[1] A former cavalry officer of the Burmese kings, later a head constable at Wundwin, recalled ganja "cultivated extensively in almost every Shan village" for sale to elephant owners on the plains.[14] British officers seldom visited the Danu country and had not enforced the prohibition there.[14] The Real Seed Company's Burmese collections of 2021, 2023 and 2025 came from Shan State, each replacing the last in its catalogue. The listings describe a cultivator from Laos who carried seed home to grow, and name no village or farmer.[13][39]

Central Myanmar. Soon after taking charge of Mandalay district in 1891, its Deputy Commissioner found hemp "grown in gardens, compounds, and cleared yards round houses", mostly for medicine for people and cattle. It had been grown "to a small extent in some parts of the Madaya and Pyniulwin townships" that year, and after his orders there was "at the present time no hemp grown at all".[16] In Kyaukse a policeman from Ingon was convicted of cultivating ganja and his sergeant of abetting him, and the Inspector-General of Police heard of a crop grown round a police station.[14][40] Another Commissioner saw plants there in 1888–89, "grown for production of ganja".[41] In Sagaing district Burmans grew a little for sale to Indians.[42][15] The Commission thought cultivation commonest in the districts of Thayetmyo, Meiktila, Kyaukse and Mandalay.[1] In Ayadaw residents estimated in 2025 that each of six neighbouring villages grew at least five acres, more than 30 acres between them. Some growers hid the crop inside fields or along fences; others planted by the roadside. A township official said the administration had burned fields in 2023.[9]

Pegu Yoma. The Toungoo district gazetteer (1914) wrote that ganja was grown "in remote spots by Karens" and carried down by Burman traders to be sold in the plains.[22] The Tharrawaddy gazetteer (1920) wrote that the Karens, "finding that there is a market for it, have taken to cultivating it in outlying parts of the Yoma".[23] In November 1921 a combined drive by the five districts bordering the range "destroyed numerous plantations",[43] and Burmese police destroyed plantations in the Pegu Yoma again in 1975 and 1979.[44][45]

Kachin Hills. In 1895 the plant was "cultivated, both for fibre and drugs, in the Kachin Hills tract of Burma".[46] On an expedition north-east of Bhamo the Inspector-General of Police found his men getting "some kind of ganja" from Kachins, who gathered it in the jungle; the sample the Commission examined was leaves and tops rolled into balls, "showing no signs of cultivation or preparation".[19] Pottinger thought the Kachins did not know the plant's uses.[20] The Rawang grow hemp, which they call Azi, in farmland round Putao for the thread of their traditional clothes.[47]

Lower Burma before 1873. The Commission inferred from an excise officer's evidence that Upper Burma had grown the plant "on a considerable scale", since that was "the sole source of supply to the shops in Lower Burma"; the plant was also reported "abundantly cultivated" in Bassein district and grown in small quantities in Pegu and in parts of the Tenasserim township.[1] The Government of India had told London in 1892 that cultivation in Burma "had never been extensive" and had virtually ceased.[4]

Mergui. The Deputy Commissioner of Mergui, H. G. Batten, took his account from a police officer who had served in the district since 1861, mostly on the Siamese frontier. Before the prohibition, by this account, Siamese settlers grew hemp for smoking in parts of the Tenasserim township and in "the Lenya and Maliwun township"; afterwards "the growing of hemp on our side of the frontier practically ceased", though it went on to a lesser extent across the frontier in Siam. In January 1891 Batten convicted a Siamese man for growing hemp in a village of the Tenasserim township "to prepare the ganja".[48] In March 2018 soldiers, police and officials destroyed marijuana plants in a village of Tanintharyi Township.[49]

Karen hills. The Karen National Union's Mutraw District said in 2013 that villagers who had fled the army into the jungle of Lu Thaw began growing cannabis around 2011 in five village tracts: Pla Ko, Ler Mu Plaw, Kay Pu, Saw Mu Plaw and Na Yo Hta. Some had first grown a little to feed their buffaloes. The district said it destroyed 4,673 plants in 2012, "equal to 4,673 viss";[11] The Irrawaddy put the 2012 destruction at "around 7,500 kg of marijuana".[50] A situation update written in the district in January 2013 for the Karen Human Rights Group said instead that the army asked villagers of the district to grow marijuana.[10]

Demoso. In 2023 Ko Win Oo, owner of a dispensary in Demoso Township that operated under the protection of the Karenni Nationalities Defence Force, told Frontier Myanmar that he was growing cannabis that season on about 100 acres and was urging local opium farmers to grow cannabis instead of poppies.[12]

Preparations and consumption

In Pegu in 1893 the dried leaves were called sè gyauk or bin, and the dried flowering tops of female plants kali-hpu.[51] Saw Maung called the plant bhen bin and the dried heads and leaves séjouk, stored as gathered. Shans cut it into shreds and smoked it with tobacco in a small cigar, put it in curries and took it against debility, dyspepsia and malaria.[2] Burmese doctors used it for dysentery; medicine men in the Upper Chindwin used it as a febrifuge and against rheumatism.[52][18]

In Upper Burma in the 1890s hemp was used to treat elephants. The Commissioner of the Eastern Division heard it called "the sole remedy for most diseases of elephants"; the Deputy Commissioner of Meiktila wrote that it was considered "invaluable as a medicine for elephants".[14][52] The excise officer at Rangoon said Burmans gave ganja "for their cattle, not for themselves".[31] The Eastern Division's Commissioner heard a Burmese saying: "ganja inspires fear, liquor gives courage, and opium produces politeness".[14]

Trade and commerce

By 1893 there was no lawful trade in the hemp drugs in Burma.[53] The Assistant Collector of Customs at Rangoon thought imports had gone on "regularly without diminishing" since 1873. Ganja came mainly from Madras, Cocanada, Bimlipatam and other ports of the Madras coast; Calcutta sent less ganja than opium. Crews threw tins of ganja off the steamers for men in boats to collect.[28][54] Parcels came by post addressed to Madras sepoys.[31] Seizures by the customs preventive service fell from 17,754 tolas in 1888–89 (a peak the customs officer put down to the troops brought in after the annexation) to 626 in 1889–90, then rose to 5,856 in 1892–93 and to 30,353 tolas, "nearly 10 maunds", in the first eight months of 1893–94.[6][53] The Commission thought smuggling into Upper Burma from the Shan States and the Kachin Hills "probably insignificant in quantity", though Danus had been caught carrying ganja into Burma.[53][14] In Rangoon ganja had once cost a rupee a tola; by 1893 it sold for four annas in the bazaar.[31]

In Lu Thaw, by the KNU's account, traders came from the town to buy, and by 2013 the price of a viss had doubled from about 500,000 to 1,000,000 kyats.[11] The Karen Human Rights Group's update put the growers' pay at 50,000 kyats a viss and named Ta Kaw Hta and Mone Township in Nyaunglebin District as the places where it was sold.[10] In Ayadaw buyers came to the villages.[9] In October 2020 Thai police at Mae Sot, on the border, said that 360 kg of cannabis seized from two Myanmar nationals who were taking it into Myanmar had come from north-eastern Thailand.[55]

Cannabis is prohibited. The governing statute is the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law of 27 January 1993, which the Central Committee for Drug Abuse Control administers; its own summary says it brings Myanmar's provisions into line with the 1988 United Nations convention.[7]

In the 1993 text, section 16 covers the cultivation, processing, transport, distribution, transmission and transfer of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, setting a penalty of five years' imprisonment at minimum and ten at maximum, with a fine also available. Section 15 punishes failure to register for medical treatment with three to five years. Section 22 exposes a person convicted again of the same offence to the maximum penalty for it.[7] The law works partly through threshold quantities that differ by drug; cannabis and cannabis resin are among those named.[7]

Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 6 of 14 February 2018 amended the law.[8] In 2025 The Irrawaddy summarised the amended law: possession of cannabis carries up to seven years in prison, and possession of more than 100 grams a further 10 to 15 years for trafficking.[9]

Hemp is treated as marijuana under the drug law. In 2019 the chairman of the upper house's Farmers' Affairs Committee said it was illegal because it contains THC. He suggested that the law set the THC content that makes a plant marijuana.[36] The police raid on the Myotha plantation in April 2019 found about 349,300 plants, 5,200 seedlings and 380 kilograms of seed. An American and two Myanmar co-workers were charged under the drug law, with penalties ranging from five years' imprisonment to death.[38][37] The American went missing after he was released on bail.[56]

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki:

Region
Central Myanmar
Kachin Hills
Pegu Yoma
Shan Hills

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki:

Growing AreaHas growing region
AyadawCentral Myanmar
Demoso
KyaukseCentral Myanmar
Lu Thaw
MadayaCentral Myanmar
MeiktilaCentral Myanmar
Mergui
MyelatShan Hills
PutaoKachin Hills
SagaingCentral Myanmar

Accessions

Accession IDNameCollectedArea
ILE-MMR-SHA-0120210001Burma Mong Hsat 2021
Nair & Nordal 4090 (1959)Nair & Nordal 4090 herbarium specimen, Kalaw (1959)Myelat
RSC-MMR-SHA-0120210001Burmese General Population 2021
RSC-MMR-SHA-0120230001Burmese General Population 2023
RSC-MMR-SHA-0120250001Burmese General Population 2025
Wallich 4665 H (1826)Wallich 4665 H herbarium specimen, Tong Dong (1826)

Conservation status

The Real Seed Company wrote of its 2021 stock that it could not yet claim with confidence that the accession from Burma was pristine, though it called that a safe assumption for the time being.[39]

Recent news

ArticleDateCategory
News:2025-12-04/Report/farmers-in-ayadaw-township-and-on-the-myinmu-border-turn-to-cannabis-the-irrawaddy-reportsReport
News:2023-04-26/Report/frontier-myanmar-reports-a-kndf-protected-cannabis-dispensary-in-demoso-whose-owner-grows-about-100-acresReport
News:2020-03-10/Policy/myingyan-district-court-sentences-a-myotha-industrial-park-farm-employee-to-20-years-over-the-cannabis-plantsPolicy
News:2019-04-22/Eradication/mandalay-police-seize-about-349-300-cannabis-plants-on-a-20-acre-farm-at-myotha-industrial-park-in-ngazun-townEradication
News:2018-03-02/Eradication/tatmadaw-military-police-officials-and-villagers-clear-cannabis-in-kyweh-htein-kon-tanintharyi-townshipEradication
News:2013-07-03/Eradication/knu-orders-a-third-drive-against-cannabis-in-lu-thaw-township-after-destroying-4-673-plants-in-2012Eradication

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. IV, "Extent of cultivation, and its tendency to increase or decrease", paras. 136–138, pp. 52–54 – via Internet Archive.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Saw Maung, ex-Sawbwa of Nyaungywe State". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 50, pp. 406–407 – via Internet Archive.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Despatch No. 166, dated 25th June 1887, from the Government of India to the Secretary of State for India, with its enclosed Note". Collection of Papers Relating to the Excise Administration of India (Reprinted from the Supplement to the Gazette of India, 1 March 1890). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, India. 1890. para. 12 and Note paras. 31, 36, 38, pp. 234–252 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Papers Relating to the Consumption of Ganja and Other Drugs in India (Return to an Address of the House of Commons, dated 21 February 1893). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 1893 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  5. ↑ Government of India (21 March 1895). Resolution No. 1369 Ex. [on the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission] (Report). Calcutta: Finance and Commerce Department, Separate Revenue (Excise). V. Policy of Government, paras. 30–32, pp. 9–10 – via National Library of Scotland.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. XVI, "Provincial systems examined", paras. 692–695, pp. 338–342 – via Internet Archive.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 "The Narcotics Drug and Psychotropic Substance Law (27 January 1993)". Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Law (Amendment Law)". Myanmar National Trade Portal (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No. 6 of 2018) (in မြန်မာဘာသာ). 14 February 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 "Cannabis Takes Root in Sagaing as Myanmar's Post-Coup Drug Boom Expands". The Irrawaddy. 4 December 2025. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Hpapun Situation Update: Bu Tho, Lu Thaw and Dwe Lo townships, January 2013". Karen Human Rights Group. 27 June 2014. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 "KNU drug-busters wipeout marijuana crop". Karen News. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Myanmar cannabis entrepreneurs plant seeds in Thailand". Frontier Myanmar. 26 April 2023. Archived from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Burmese". The Real Seed Company. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. J. E. Bridges, Commissioner of the Eastern Division". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 3, pp. 377–380 – via Internet Archive.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Major G. S. Eyre, Deputy Commissioner, Sagaing". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 12, pp. 385–386 – via Internet Archive.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. K. G. Burne, Deputy Commissioner, Mandalay". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 7, pp. 381–382 – via Internet Archive.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Lieutenant-Colonel C. B. Cooke, Commissioner of Pegu". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 2, pp. 376–377 – via Internet Archive.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. W. N. Porter, Deputy Commissioner, Upper Chindwin". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 13, p. 386 – via Internet Archive.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. III, "The existence, prevalence, and character of the spontaneous growth", paras. 74–75 – via Internet Archive.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Pottinger, E.; Prain, D. (1898). "A note on the botany of the Kachin Hills north-east of Myitkyina" (PDF). Records of the Botanical Survey of India. 1: 263 – via Botanical Survey of India.
  21. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Kungyi, uncle of Sawbwa of Hsipan (Thibaw)". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 51, p. 407 – via Internet Archive.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Swithinbank, B. W., ed. (1914). Burma Gazetteer: Toungoo District. Volume A. Rangoon: Office of the Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. p. 66 – via Internet Archive.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Grantham, S. G.; McDowall, R. G.; Swithinbank, B. W., eds. (1920). Burma Gazetteer: Tharrawaddy District. Volume A. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. pp. 93–94 – via Internet Archive.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Colonel H. R. Spearman, Commissioner, Tenasserim Division". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 1, pp. 375–376 – via Internet Archive.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Kinwun Mingyi, C.S.I., Prime Minister to the late Government of Burma". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 52, pp. 407–408 – via Internet Archive.
  26. ↑ McPartland, J.M.; Small, E. (2020). "A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives". PhytoKeys. 144. Supplementary file 1, p. 78. doi:10.3897/phytokeys.144.46700.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Myowun U Pe Si, C.I.E., late Town Magistrate of Mandalay". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 53, p. 408 – via Internet Archive.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. R. G. Culloden, Assistant Collector and Superintendent, Preventive Service, Rangoon". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 18, pp. 389–390 – via Internet Archive.
  29. ↑ "Letter No. 3361, dated 22nd June 1888, from E. J. Sinkinson, Officiating Secretary to the Government of India, Department of Finance and Commerce, to the Chief Commissioner of Burma". Collection of Papers Relating to the Excise Administration of India (Reprinted from the Supplement to the Gazette of India, 1 March 1890). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, India. 1890. para. 4(1), p. 262 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  30. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Burma witnesses". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. pp. 375–408 – via Internet Archive.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. E. Lewis, Excise Officer, Rangoon". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 19, pp. 390–392 – via Internet Archive.
  32. ↑ Government of India (21 March 1895). Resolution No. 1369 Ex. [on the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission] (Report). Calcutta: Finance and Commerce Department, Separate Revenue (Excise). VIII. Control and taxation, paras. 46–67, pp. 14–22 – via National Library of Scotland.
  33. ↑ East India (Excise): Correspondence regarding Excise Administration (Command paper). Vol. II. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office (Darling and Son). 1914. Cd. 7604 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
  34. ↑ Government of Burma (1922). Report on the Administration of Burma for the Year 1919–20 (Report). Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. para. 151 – via Internet Archive.
  35. ↑ Government of Burma (1935). Report on the Administration of Burma for the Year 1933–34 (Report). Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing and Stationery, Burma. para. 140 – via Internet Archive.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Htun Htun (3 September 2019). "Lawmaker to Propose Bill Legalizing Hemp Cultivation in Myanmar". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Zarni Mann (24 April 2019). "American, 2 Others Held over Marijuana Plantation in Mandalay Division". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 "Death Penalty Possible in Myanmar Cannabis Farm Case". Voice of America. Associated Press. 21 May 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Burmese". The Real Seed Company. Archived from the original on 26 November 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2026.
  40. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Major Peile, Inspector-General of Police". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 20, p. 392 – via Internet Archive.
  41. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Major B. A. N. Parrott, Officiating Commissioner, Southern Division". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 4, p. 380 – via Internet Archive.
  42. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. C. M. Prendergast, District Superintendent of Police, Sagaing". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 28, p. 394 – via Internet Archive.
  43. ↑ Government of Burma (1923). Report on the Administration of Burma for the Year 1921–22 (Report). Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. paras. 118 and 232, pp. 69, 135 – via Internet Archive.
  44. ↑ United States Embassy, Rangoon (15 November 1975). Joint Weeka #42 (Diplomatic cable). United States Department of State. section 2, item 7, "Narcotics". Rangoon 3168 – via Internet Archive.
  45. ↑ Joint Publications Research Service (29 November 1979). Worldwide Report: Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (FOUO 50/79) (Report). Foreign Broadcast Information Service. "Near 4,000 acres poppy fields destroyed in three months", from The Working People's Daily (Rangoon), 2 November 1979, pp. 1, 8. JPRS L/8789 – via Internet Archive.
  46. ↑ Government of India (21 March 1895). Resolution No. 1369 Ex. [on the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission] (Report). Calcutta: Finance and Commerce Department, Separate Revenue (Excise) – via National Library of Scotland.
  47. ↑ Hponkan (13 December 2023). "Azi (aka) hemp, the heart of the Rawang people". Myanmar Digital News. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
  48. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. H. G. Batten, Deputy Commissioner, Mergui". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 11, pp. 384–385 – via Internet Archive.
  49. ↑ "Mergui-Tavoy Situation Update: Tanintharyi Township, November 2017 to March 2018". Karen Human Rights Group. 28 September 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
  50. ↑ "KNU Weed-whackers Get Busy". The Irrawaddy. 5 July 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
  51. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. J. S. D. Fraser, Deputy Commissioner, Pegu". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 16, pp. 387–389 – via Internet Archive.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. H. Adamson, Deputy Commissioner, Meiktila". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 10, p. 384 – via Internet Archive.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. VII, "Trade and movement of the hemp drugs", para. 327, p. 122 – via Internet Archive.
  54. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. A. L. Hough, Deputy Commissioner, Akyab". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VII: Evidence of Witnesses from Bombay, Sind, Berar, Ajmere, Coorg, Baluchistan, and Burma. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Burma witness no. 15, p. 387 – via Internet Archive.
  55. ↑ "Thai police catch Myanmar nationals trafficking marijuana". Eleven Media Group. 8 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2026.
  56. ↑ "Whereabouts of American on trial for growing hemp unknown as he misses court hearings". Myanmar Now. 15 January 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
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