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A history of the spread and consumption of poppy and hemp in medieval Islam and of the social, economic, political and medical consequences that contemporaries attributed to their misuse, written from contemporary Arabic sources. Opium carries the larger part of the paper and hemp is treated alongside it, so the cannabis material is a component rather than the subject. Of use to the Arabic-medicine records as the older survey that Lozano and later authors write against, and as a source on the reception of hashish in the medieval Islamic world rather than on its pharmacology. +
Primary ethnographic and textual analysis tracing ceremonial cannabis use in Indian Tantrism to three converging Vedic traditions: magical use of bhang (Atharva Veda, second millennium BC), divine poison-drinking mythology (Churning of the Milk Ocean), and drug yoga (oshadhi/siddhi). Provides the most detailed English-language description of the vijaya (cannabis milkshake) consecration ritual from the Mahanirvana Tantra (c. 11th century AD), including full sequence of mantras, mudras and meditative stages. Notes approximately 90-minute interval between ingestion and ritual climax corresponds to pharmacological onset of oral cannabis. Argues vijaya functions as essential "sense-heightener" not merely a disinhibitor. Reports Tantric practice peaked in medieval Bengal and Himalayan kingdoms; in Bengal cannabis called siddhi (pun on "occult powers"). Personal communication from Prof. Agehananda Bharati that as of mid-1960s no one performed full traditional ceremonies. Author affiliated with Fitz Hugh Ludlow Memorial Library, San Francisco. +
Research:1981-01-01/Journal article/the-religious-and-medicinal-uses-of-cannabis-in-china-india-and-tibet +
A survey of the documentary record for cannabis as a religious and medicinal plant across three traditions, written from the Arnold Arboretum. Touw works through the Chinese material from the Neolithic textile finds and the classics that treat hemp as one of the five grains, argues that the silence of the old scripts on psychoactivity reflects the decline and disrepute of shamanism rather than ignorance of the effect and reads the Pen Ts'ao Ching passage on ma-fen accordingly. The Indian and Tibetan sections cover the bhang, ganja and charas distinctions and the ritual and therapeutic contexts attached to them. Cited widely as a background source on the diffusion question and on the Chinese fibre-to-drug sequence. +
Research:1996-11-01/Journal article/from-rituals-of-rapture-to-dependence-the-political-economy-of-khoikhoi-narcotic-consumption-c-1487-1870 +
Argues that the intoxicant the seventeenth-century eastern Khoikhoi cultivated and traded, and van Riebeeck's 1658 dacha, was probably canna (a fermented Karoo root) rather than cannabis, and that dagga came to denote cannabis in Cape trade only by the eighteenth century. Use for the canna-versus-cannabis distinction, not for a precolonial cannabis-trade claim. +
A review of the therapeutic uses recorded for cannabis in Arabic medicine between the eighth and the eighteenth centuries, written from the Department of Semitic Studies at Granada. Lozano reports a systematic reading of the Arabic medical, pharmacological and botanical literature of that period together with lexicographical, agricultural, literary, legal, historical and geographical sources, of which more than fifty carry information on the plant. The paper is organised by therapeutic use and identifies the earliest author to record each one, covering diuretic, anti-emetic, anti-epileptic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic applications. The author notes at the outset that the modern pharmacological literature has generally passed over this material. +
Research:2001-03-01/Journal article/medicinal-properties-of-cannabis-according-to-medieval-manuscripts-of-azerbaijan +
A study of cannabis in the medical and pharmacognostic manuscripts of medieval Azerbaijan, drawn from the collection of the Institute of Manuscripts of the Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences in Baku. Alakbarov reports on sources written in Old Azerbaijani, Persian and Arabic and dating between the ninth and eighteenth centuries, among them the Tuhfat al-Mu'minin and the Tibbnama, and records the use of the roots, resin, leaves and seeds of Cannabis sativa in traditional medicine. The author notes that both Cannabis sativa and Cannabis ruderalis occur in the region, the latter as a wild plant of the Major Caucasus and Nakhichevan, and that a number of the recipes had gone out of use before being deciphered here. +
Research:2002-01-01/Journal article/a-preliminary-inventory-of-plants-used-for-psychoactive-purposes-in-southern-african-healing-traditions +
A preliminary inventory of plants used for psychoactive purposes in southern African healing traditions, part of the regional under-researched framing. +
Research:2003-12-01/Journal article/cannabis-sativa-and-rural-livelihoods-in-south-africa-politics-of-cultivation-trade-and-value-in-pondoland +
A Pondoland village case study (fieldwork 1996–2000) reporting that eastern Pondoland has produced the most cannabis for decades and that broken terrain impedes policing. Records a grower share of about R16–40/kg against city dealers' roughly R1,000/kg, and argues that decriminalisation could lower prices and harm rural growers. +
Argues that the smoking habit in Africa predates tobacco, citing dated pipe finds including cannabis residue at Lalibela Cave, Ethiopia, around 1320 CE. The East-African comparandum for early southern-African smoking. +
Research:2006-09-30/Journal article/the-significance-of-the-use-of-ganja-as-a-religious-ritual-in-the-rastafari-movement +
A religious-studies treatment of the significance of ganja as a Rastafari ritual, tied to the 2002 Prince ruling. A dedicated South African account of the sacrament. +
Research:2008-01-01/Journal article/a-review-of-plants-used-in-divination-in-southern-africa-and-their-psychoactive-effects +
A review of 85 plant species used for divination by southern African Bantu-speaking peoples, finding that about 45% show psychoactive properties. Regional context for the southern-African ethnobotany thread. +
Research:2009-12-01/Journal article/using-a-political-ecology-framework-to-examine-extra-legal-livelihood-strategies-a-lesotho-based-case-study +
Uses a political-ecology framework to examine cannabis cultivation and trade as an extra-legal livelihood strategy in Lesotho. Place-anchored to Lesotho within the cross-border production complex. +
Research:2011-01-01/Journal article/the-league-of-nations-and-the-debate-over-cannabis-prohibition +
Reviews the League of Nations debate that drew cannabis into the international control framework, the process behind the 1925 Geneva scheduling. Global in scope rather than South-Africa-specific. +
A review of the medical ethnobotany of Lesotho recording Sesotho matekoane (Cannabis sativa) and its uses. Cite as Bothalia 41(1):209–228 (2011), not the widely-copied 43(2), 2013. +
Research:2012-12-30/Journal article/the-rastafari-movement-in-south-africa-before-and-after-apartheid +
The principal synthesis of the Rastafari movement in South Africa before and after apartheid, dating formal organisation to December 1997 with individuals present from the late 1970s, and recording the ganja sacrament. +
Research:2013-01-01/Journal article/variations-and-origin-of-the-atmospheric-pollen-of-cannabis-detected-in-the-province-of-tetouan-nw-morocco-200 +
An aerobiological study sampling airborne Cannabis pollen at Tetouan in north-western Morocco over three years, using a Hirst type volumetric trap run continuously to the Spanish Aerobiology Network protocol. The authors record pollen in the atmosphere from early April to late August, with about 95 per cent of the annual count falling inside that period and the highest concentrations in June and July. They argue the data can serve as an indicator of the extent of cannabis cultivation in the region, and separately that the levels measured are high enough to matter clinically as an aeroallergen. Useful to the Rif cultivation record as a measure of cultivation activity arrived at independently of the UNODC survey series. +
Research:2013-05-25/Journal article/plants-of-xhosa-people-in-the-transkei-region-of-eastern-cape-south-africa-with-major-pharmacological +
An ethnobotanical survey recording medicinal and other uses of 35 plant species among Xhosa people in the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape, including Cannabis sativa (umya, intsangu, matakwane) as a leaf medicine. A single-author survey in a low-prestige journal, attributed as such. The publisher DOI 10.5897/JMPR12.973 does not resolve, so the record cites the Academic Journals URL. +
Research:2014-08-01/Journal article/psychoactive-plants-a-neglected-area-of-ethnobotanical-research-in-southern-africa-review +
A review arguing that psychoactive plants are a neglected area of ethnobotanical research in southern Africa. +
Field-based investigation conducted in 2013 in the Rif under the European Linksch programme, addressing the gap between UNODC area estimates and seizure volumes for Moroccan hashish. Documents that cultivated areas fell from 134,000 ha in 2003 to 47,500 ha in 2011, but argues that the corresponding 75 percent decline in production volume is implausible given seizure data: the 2009 figures alone implied an 83 percent interception rate, leaving too little hashish in circulation to supply the European market. Resolves the inconsistency through direct field observation: most parcels visited in 2013 had been replanted from kif to imported hybrids with indica-dominant morphology. Documents roughly ten hybrid names current in the Rif including khardala (the dominant 2013 variety), gaouriya, romiya, pakistana, jamaicana, mexicana, marijuana, avocat and hajala, alongside the renaming of kif itself to beldiya, maghribiya, aadiya or kdima dyalna in dichotomous opposition. Traces the supply chain through Swiss outdoor hybrids developed for the Canna Swiss Cup from 1999, Dutch breeding heritage, and increasingly Spanish seedbanks. Reports khardala extraction yields of 7 percent year one, 5 percent year two, 3 percent year three (5 percent average) versus 2 to 2.8 percent for kif per UNODC, doubling or tripling resin yield per hectare. Links the hybrid shift to the documented rise in THC concentration of Moroccan resin seized in France from around 8 percent in the 1980s and 1990s to over 17 percent in 2013. Flags the ecological cost: hybrids require irrigation, accelerating aquifer depletion in a region already exhausted by monoculture. Notes the 2013–2014 legalisation proposals from Istiqlal and PAM and the formation of the Coordination du pays du kif by Senhaja and Ghomara growers' confederations. +
Research:2015-03-01/Journal article/are-moroccan-cannabis-growers-able-to-adapt-to-recent-european-market-trend +
A short commentary tracing how European demand has shaped Moroccan cannabis supply since the 1960s, from kif grown for local consumption to hashish produced for export. Afsahi sets out the arrival of the sieving technique with European visitors in the 1960s, Morocco's position as the leading supplier to the European market through the 1980s and 1990s and the pressure placed on that position by the growth of cannabis cultivation inside Europe. The author argues that Rif growers have changed production strategies each time European demand shifted, and that those adjustments have strengthened rather than weakened the illicit economy. Read alongside the terroir and hashish-revival records for the demand-side account of why local varieties gave way to imported hybrids. +