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Primary ethnographic and textual analysis tracing ceremonial cannabis use in Indian Tantrism to three converging Vedic traditions: magical use of bhang (Atharva Veda, second millennium BC), divine poison-drinking mythology (Churning of the Milk Ocean), and drug yoga (oshadhi/siddhi). Provides the most detailed English-language description of the vijaya (cannabis milkshake) consecration ritual from the Mahanirvana Tantra (c. 11th century AD), including full sequence of mantras, mudras and meditative stages. Notes approximately 90-minute interval between ingestion and ritual climax corresponds to pharmacological onset of oral cannabis. Argues vijaya functions as essential "sense-heightener" not merely a disinhibitor. Reports Tantric practice peaked in medieval Bengal and Himalayan kingdoms; in Bengal cannabis called siddhi (pun on "occult powers"). Personal communication from Prof. Agehananda Bharati that as of mid-1960s no one performed full traditional ceremonies. Author affiliated with Fitz Hugh Ludlow Memorial Library, San Francisco. +
Research:1996-11-01/Journal article/from-rituals-of-rapture-to-dependence-the-political-economy-of-khoikhoi-narcotic-consumption-c-1487-1870 +
Argues that the intoxicant the seventeenth-century eastern Khoikhoi cultivated and traded, and van Riebeeck's 1658 dacha, was probably canna (a fermented Karoo root) rather than cannabis, and that dagga came to denote cannabis in Cape trade only by the eighteenth century. Use for the canna-versus-cannabis distinction, not for a precolonial cannabis-trade claim. +
Research:2002-01-01/Journal article/a-preliminary-inventory-of-plants-used-for-psychoactive-purposes-in-southern-african-healing-traditions +
A preliminary inventory of plants used for psychoactive purposes in southern African healing traditions, part of the regional under-researched framing. +
Research:2003-12-01/Journal article/cannabis-sativa-and-rural-livelihoods-in-south-africa-politics-of-cultivation-trade-and-value-in-pondoland +
A Pondoland village case study (fieldwork 1996–2000) reporting that eastern Pondoland has produced the most cannabis for decades and that broken terrain impedes policing. Records a grower share of about R16–40/kg against city dealers' roughly R1,000/kg, and argues that decriminalisation could lower prices and harm rural growers. +
Argues that the smoking habit in Africa predates tobacco, citing dated pipe finds including cannabis residue at Lalibela Cave, Ethiopia, around 1320 CE. The East-African comparandum for early southern-African smoking. +
Research:2006-09-30/Journal article/the-significance-of-the-use-of-ganja-as-a-religious-ritual-in-the-rastafari-movement +
A religious-studies treatment of the significance of ganja as a Rastafari ritual, tied to the 2002 Prince ruling. A dedicated South African account of the sacrament. +
Research:2008-01-01/Journal article/a-review-of-plants-used-in-divination-in-southern-africa-and-their-psychoactive-effects +
A review of 85 plant species used for divination by southern African Bantu-speaking peoples, finding that about 45% show psychoactive properties. Regional context for the southern-African ethnobotany thread. +
Research:2009-12-01/Journal article/using-a-political-ecology-framework-to-examine-extra-legal-livelihood-strategies-a-lesotho-based-case-study +
Uses a political-ecology framework to examine cannabis cultivation and trade as an extra-legal livelihood strategy in Lesotho. Place-anchored to Lesotho within the cross-border production complex. +
Research:2011-01-01/Journal article/the-league-of-nations-and-the-debate-over-cannabis-prohibition +
Reviews the League of Nations debate that drew cannabis into the international control framework, the process behind the 1925 Geneva scheduling. Global in scope rather than South-Africa-specific. +
A review of the medical ethnobotany of Lesotho recording Sesotho matekoane (Cannabis sativa) and its uses. Cite as Bothalia 41(1):209–228 (2011), not the widely-copied 43(2), 2013. +
Research:2012-12-30/Journal article/the-rastafari-movement-in-south-africa-before-and-after-apartheid +
The principal synthesis of the Rastafari movement in South Africa before and after apartheid, dating formal organisation to December 1997 with individuals present from the late 1970s, and recording the ganja sacrament. +
Research:2013-05-25/Journal article/plants-of-xhosa-people-in-the-transkei-region-of-eastern-cape-south-africa-with-major-pharmacological +
An ethnobotanical survey recording medicinal and other uses of 35 plant species among Xhosa people in the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape, including Cannabis sativa (umya, intsangu, matakwane) as a leaf medicine. A single-author survey in a low-prestige journal, attributed as such. The publisher DOI 10.5897/JMPR12.973 does not resolve, so the record cites the Academic Journals URL. +
Research:2014-08-01/Journal article/psychoactive-plants-a-neglected-area-of-ethnobotanical-research-in-southern-africa-review +
A review arguing that psychoactive plants are a neglected area of ethnobotanical research in southern Africa. +
Field-based investigation conducted in 2013 in the Rif under the European Linksch programme, addressing the gap between UNODC area estimates and seizure volumes for Moroccan hashish. Documents that cultivated areas fell from 134,000 ha in 2003 to 47,500 ha in 2011, but argues that the corresponding 75 percent decline in production volume is implausible given seizure data: the 2009 figures alone implied an 83 percent interception rate, leaving too little hashish in circulation to supply the European market. Resolves the inconsistency through direct field observation: most parcels visited in 2013 had been replanted from kif to imported hybrids with indica-dominant morphology. Documents roughly ten hybrid names current in the Rif including khardala (the dominant 2013 variety), gaouriya, romiya, pakistana, jamaicana, mexicana, marijuana, avocat and hajala, alongside the renaming of kif itself to beldiya, maghribiya, aadiya or kdima dyalna in dichotomous opposition. Traces the supply chain through Swiss outdoor hybrids developed for the Canna Swiss Cup from 1999, Dutch breeding heritage, and increasingly Spanish seedbanks. Reports khardala extraction yields of 7 percent year one, 5 percent year two, 3 percent year three (5 percent average) versus 2 to 2.8 percent for kif per UNODC, doubling or tripling resin yield per hectare. Links the hybrid shift to the documented rise in THC concentration of Moroccan resin seized in France from around 8 percent in the 1980s and 1990s to over 17 percent in 2013. Flags the ecological cost: hybrids require irrigation, accelerating aquifer depletion in a region already exhausted by monoculture. Notes the 2013–2014 legalisation proposals from Istiqlal and PAM and the formation of the Coordination du pays du kif by Senhaja and Ghomara growers' confederations. +
Research:2015-11-01/Journal article/wild-cannabis-a-review-of-the-traditional-use-and-phytochemistry-of-leonotis-leonurus +
A review of the traditional use and phytochemistry of Leonotis leonurus ("wild dagga"), establishing that it is not cannabis and keeping the vernacular term distinct from true dagga. +
Policy briefing on cannabis in Indonesia covering patterns of consumption and production, the Aceh cultivation economy, traditional and culinary uses, the colonial origins of prohibition under the 1920s narcotics ordinances and the operation of the current Law 35/2009 regime, with recommendations on decriminalisation of use and small-scale cultivation. The briefing draws on Dutch archival research, local interviews and testimony collected under the research restrictions it documents. It serves as a baseline secondary source for the legal and cultivation history on the Indonesia country page. +
Surveys cannabis and tobacco in precolonial and colonial Africa, inferring a maritime introduction to East Africa around 1000 CE with most spread after 1500. Continental in scope; pairs with the on-wiki Duvall EchoGéo record. +
Research:2018-09-01/Journal article/indigenous-uses-of-wild-hemp-cannabis-sativa-by-the-local-inhabitants-in-manikaran-valley-of-himachal-pradesh +
Primary ethnobotanical fieldwork (2015-2017) documenting indigenous uses of wild hemp by native communities in Manikaran Valley, Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh. Surveys conducted in five villages: Kasol, Rasol, Pulga, Kalga and Tosh. Records medicinal uses including seed oil for arthritis (cold-pressed or infused in mustard oil), dry leaf powder with egg for abnormal menstrual bleeding, leaf paste for wounds and sores, leaf paste with cow urine for joint pain, and leaves rubbed on wasp/bee/scorpion stings. Documents religious use: ''Ghota'' (hemp offering) prepared for Lord Shiva during Shivaratri; leaves used in daily Shiva worship. Records material culture in detail: hemp fibre (''Shel'') processed by dew retting then water retting in ''kulh'' (irrigation channels), used to make ''pullan'' (traditional footwear for religious ceremonies and snow travel), ropes, mats and ''Chikda'' (bull mouth masks); fibre form ''cheuli'' used as non-stick on cooking plates. Documents food uses: seeds (''Mangolu'') roasted and ground with garlic, salt and green chilies as condiment; seeds used in traditional dishes ''Siddu'' and ''Aaksalu''; chutney prepared with seeds, ''dadhu'' (local pomegranate), chilies, mint, coriander and lemon. Records leaves used in preparation of ''Dhehli'' (inoculum for ''Sur'', a local alcoholic drink). Published by researchers at G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development, Himachal Regional Centre, Mohal-Kullu. +
Sociological ethnography based on fourteen months of doctoral fieldwork in the Parvati Valley, Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh. Conducted from Department of Sociology, Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University. Documents how cannabis shifted from a "humble object" of everyday utility (food, clothing, medicine, social intoxicant) to a "transgressive substance" driving rapid social transformation. Records traditional multi-use baseline: hemp fabric coats, hemp footwear, seed chutney with sidhu bread for winter warmth, flower oil for menstrual cramps, buds in milk for impotency, leaves as de-wormer, cannabis used to wean from alcohol, charas consumed socially in hookahs and chillums. Economic data from three pseudonymised villages: all households involved in cultivation/production/trade; charas increased household income 50-100%; specific income figures for cultivator-dealer households. Documents cultivation on state forestland at altitude above villages, enabling lower-caste participation without hereditary land. Records 510 NDPS cases in Kullu in 2012 (143 local residents), prison sentences, drug tourism introducing cocaine/heroin/MDMA/ketamine/LSD. Traces colonial circulation of cannabis to Europe, fetishisation as exclusive intoxicant, and "imported" Western meanings that now overshadow local uses. Argues India resisted UN drug convention pressure for 25 years before NDPS Act (1985). Theoretical framework draws on Latour's actor-network theory to position cannabis as non-human social "actant." +
Research:2019-01-01/Journal article/a-brief-agricultural-history-of-cannabis-in-africa-from-prehistory-to-canna-colony +
Outlines four historical phases of cannabis cultivation in Africa: the plant's initial dispersal across the continent and the diverse farming and use cultures that developed; the formal markets that arose under colonial regimes even as colonial administrations more widely suppressed the crop; the twentieth-century drug laws that reshaped the economics of production and made cannabis attractive to resource-poor farmers; and the recent legalisation of cultivation in specific national contexts. Duvall argues that this agricultural history has produced relationships that let actors in the Global North extract more value from African cannabis than African farmers can. Foundational reference for African cannabis agricultural history and the extractive dynamics of recent legalisation. +