Research:2026-01-15/Journal article/unraveling-the-confusion-of-flowering-types-and-terminology-in-cannabis-sativa

Research record15 January 2026

Research:2026-01-15/Journal article/unraveling-the-confusion-of-flowering-types-and-terminology-in-cannabis-sativa

Madigan Eckels; Royal Heins; Bruce Bugbee

HortScience (American Society for Horticultural Science) · 2026

Abstract

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) is a dioecious plant with many flower types. Academia currently uses multiple definitions of cannabis flowering that inadequately capture the diversity that occurs in variable temperatures and photoperiods. This perspective article reviews the imprecise flowering terminology that has created contradictions in research findings and confused the photoperiodic classification of cannabis. We describe new terminology to differentiate between two types of female reproductive structures with subclassifications for specific female flower appearances. “Botanical pistillate flowering” refers to the day-neutral single pistillate flowers that appear at the nodes of female and monoecious plants. “Commercial pistillate flowering” leads to a distinctive compound inflorescence and is marked by the appearance of a domed structure with three stigma pairs on the dominant growing point in female and monoecious plants. Female flowering can be further described as “early - or late-stage incomplete commercial pistillate flowering.” Male reproductive structures develop into two forms. “Botanical staminate flowering” produces panicles with bell-shaped pedicellate flowers that have five petals, which open to reveal five anthers attached via anther filaments in male and monoecious plants. “Antheral flowering” is characterized by the appearance of single anthers or clusters of anthers that lack a pedicel and have no petals or filaments at the nodes or within the female inflorescence on monoecious plants. We include descriptive examples and photographs to facilitate the adoption of precise flowering terminology.

The paper's abstract, reproduced as published.

SourceDOIPDF

Record created 20 January 2026 · maintained by landrace.wiki editors · page history

Published15 Jan 2026

VenueHortScience (American Society for Horticultural Science)

Year2026

DOI10.21273/HORTSCI19059-25

SourceDOIPDF

2026-01-15 2026-01-20 Unraveling the Confusion of Flowering Types and Terminology in Cannabis sativa Journal article Madigan Eckels; Royal Heins; Bruce Bugbee HortScience (American Society for Horticultural Science) 2026 10.21273/HORTSCI19059-25 https://journals.ashs.org/view/journals/hortsci/61/2/article-p396.xml https://journals.ashs.org/hort/hort/published/rest/pdf-watermark/v1/journals/hortsci/61/2/article-p396.pdf/watermark-pdf/ Perspective/review arguing that cannabis “flowering” terminology is inconsistent across research and industry, which leads to misclassification of photoperiodic behavior and reproductive structures. Proposes clearer categories for female reproductive development (pistillate flowering) and distinguishes multiple male flowering expressions, with descriptive examples and photos to standardize usage across controlled-environment and field contexts.