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News:1942-01-01/Report/second-world-war-increases-cannabis-trade-in-ceylon-to-supply-foreign-soldiers +
The Second World War led to a significant increase in the cannabis trade in Sri Lanka to supply foreign soldiers stationed on the island. According to the UNODC, the wartime demand expanded cannabis use among the lower classes, especially manual labourers, establishing consumption patterns that persisted after the war. Ceylon served as a major Allied military base during the war, hosting the South East Asia Command headquarters at Kandy from 1944. The influx of foreign military personnel and associated camp followers created new demand for cannabis beyond the traditional Ayurvedic and customary use that had characterised consumption for centuries. +
News:1973-09-18/Report/us-embassy-colombo-cable-reports-150-tons-annual-ganja-production-details-nascent-narcotics-enforcement +
A classified US Embassy Colombo telegram (No. 2330, Priority) to the State Department provided the most detailed early external assessment of Sri Lanka's narcotics situation. The cable estimated 150 tons of illicit ganja production annually — "a reasonable estimate" that "exceeds local usage including that for ayurvedic medicine" — raising strong suspicion of cannabis exports. Opium entering from India across the Palk Straits was estimated at 5–15 tons annually. Major seizures included 271 four-gallon tins of hashish oil near Ratnapura in June and 14 pounds of opium near Velvettiturai in August. The cable reported the Police Narcotics Division had been established in April 1973 with a "small enthusiastic staff" but "insufficient budgetary and administrative support." The National Narcotics Advisory Board was created on 13 September 1973, chaired by the Deputy Minister of Defence and Foreign Affairs. Colombo Plan drug abuse advisor Pio Abarro (Philippine attorney) had arrived in August, recommending strengthened anti-narcotics laws as the first priority. US assistance included DEA training literature, narcotics identification kits, and proposed equipment totalling $6,000–10,000. The embassy assessed: "Having other urgent problems, GSL has been willing to live with narcotics problem in Sri Lanka as it has been perceived, that is, large amount of traditional usage of ganja, small local consumption of opium, and unknown quantity of opium trans-shipped through Sri Lanka into international traffic." +
According to the UNODC, the development of the tourist industry and the arrival of "hippies" introduced cannabis as a recreational euphoriant to Sri Lankan youth in the late 1970s, marking a shift from centuries of traditional Ayurvedic and customary use toward Western-style recreational consumption. The same pattern affected Nepal (mid-1960s) and the Maldives (mid-1970s), where hashish smoking was introduced to a society previously free of cannabis. Simultaneously, the first systematic field investigation of drug abuse in Sri Lanka — coordinated by the Narcotics Advisory Board — revealed opium, cannabis, and barbiturates as the most commonly used substances for nonmedical purposes. The survey found 48% of cannabis users were between ages 15 and 25. During 1975–1979, an average of 4,000 persons per year were arrested for drug-related offenses, with an additional 3,000 seeking help for drug problems. +
News:1980-01-01/Research/sri-lanka-government-survey-estimates-16-000-18-000-chronic-cannabis-users +
A Sri Lankan government survey estimated 3,500–5,800 opium dependents and 16,000–18,000 chronic cannabis users in the country. Based on a WHO conversion factor of 10 actual drug abusers for every one identified, the government estimated the total drug usage level could be as high as 1.5% of the population. The survey built on the 1978 Narcotics Advisory Board field investigation and represented the first attempt at national prevalence estimates. The figures would later be revised dramatically upward — by 2004, the NDDCB estimated 600,000 cannabis users and 45,000 heroin users, reflecting both actual growth in consumption and improved surveillance methods. +
The Sri Lankan Parliament enacted the National Dangerous Drugs Control Board (NDDCB) Act No. 11 of 1984, establishing a dedicated national focal point for drug control and international treaty obligations. The NDDCB replaced the informal National Narcotics Advisory Board created in 1973 with a statutory body responsible for coordinating demand reduction, supply control, research, and rehabilitation. The Act succeeded the colonial-era Poisons, Opium and Dangerous Drugs Ordinance of 1935, which a 1988 Library of Congress study described as "seriously outdated for a society in the 1980s." The new legislation arrived as Sri Lanka was transitioning from a traditional cannabis-and-opium drug landscape to one increasingly dominated by heroin — the UNODC noted heroin abuse had spread to Sri Lanka and India in the 1980s, countries "which had no previous experience with the problem." The NDDCB would go on to operate four residential treatment centres (Colombo, Kandy, Galle, Urapola) and serve as the primary data collection authority on drug use in Sri Lanka. +
News:1996-02-22/Policy/president-clinton-adds-cambodia-to-us-major-illicit-drug-producing-transit-countries-list +
President Clinton formally added Cambodia to the US list of major illicit drug producing and drug transit countries under Section 490(h) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. The letter cited "numerous indicators that the heroin trafficking problem in Cambodia is severe," including a 71 kg heroin seizure in a speedboat in Koh Kong province (August 11, 1995) — the largest ever in Cambodia — and West African traffickers admitting to smuggling heroin to the US. The letter noted narcotics-related corruption involving Cambodian military, police, government, and business circles. Notably, the letter focused almost entirely on HEROIN transit rather than cannabis production, despite Cambodia being a major global cannabis producer. A separate section acknowledged that countries cultivating over 5,000 hectares of cannabis qualified as "major illicit drug producing countries" under FAA 481(e)(2), but Cambodia was listed as a transit country for heroin, not as a cannabis producer. +
News:1997-03-03/Report/us-international-narcotics-control-strategy-report-documents-96-4-metric-tons-of-cannabis-seized-amid-ltte-con +
The US State Department's International Narcotics Control Strategy Report for 1997 (released March 1998) provided a comprehensive assessment of Sri Lanka's drug situation during the height of the LTTE civil war. Cannabis seizures peaked at 96.4 metric tons in 1996 with 14,794 arrests, declining to 61.8 MT (Jan–Oct 1997) as police personnel were diverted to military operations. A 50-acre cannabis plantation was detected and destroyed in the south in January 1997. The report noted cultivation areas were mostly located in "heavy jungle in southeastern part of island" and police relied primarily on informants. LTTE drug trafficking was "widely believed" but neither the embassy nor the Police Narcotics Bureau had "firm evidence" to support the suspicion. Heroin and hashish transited in "significant quantities," mostly detected at Katunayake International Airport, while 1,100 miles of coastline "cannot be adequately patrolled" with naval forces engaged in the conflict. A comprehensive legislative package drafted by the NDDCB — covering money laundering, asset forfeiture, and extradition — had not been presented to Parliament. US assistance exceeded $12,000 to NDDCB, $2,400 to FONGOADA (Federation of NGOs Against Drug Abuse), and $300,000 to the Colombo Plan Drug Advisory Program. +
News:1998-11-01/Report/cannabis-cambodia-smokers-paradise-detailed-account-of-open-cannabis-trade-cultivation-and-culture +
Journalist Amit Gilboa documented Cambodia's cannabis landscape in comprehensive detail. Cannabis was openly sold at Phnom Penh markets by traditional medicine vendors — $2 for 100g, $20/kg — called "gaan-chah." Export-quality cannabis was available in Sihanoukville (Kompong Som) and Koh Kong. A Khmer journalist explained that "marijuana grows very easily on the fields by the river. The farmers can just scatter the seeds and let it grow" and that some people "have the custom of eating it in chicken soup in the morning." Cannabis was considered an "old man's habit" by young Khmers. The December 1996 anti-marijuana law was described as driven by US pressure, with sources confirming heavy American prohibitionist influence. A 1997 anti-drug workshop in Japan named Cambodia as the second biggest source (behind Colombia) for seized marijuana in Europe. The article documented high-level government protection of trafficking operations, including the 6-tonne Mong Ret Thy seizure (April 1997) and the military assault on anti-drug chief Heng Peo (March 1998). +
(Article inaccessible — title implies this was the second farm destroyed in Kampot in a short period, suggesting an enforcement campaign) +
News:2000-03-03/Report/us-report-documents-1999-cambodian-marijuana-destruction-25-plantations-in-koh-kong-5-tonnes-nationally +
yUS report (likely State Department INCSR) cited by Cambodia Daily documented 1999 enforcement under National Police Director General Hok Lundy: 25 marijuana plantations and 1,200 kg processed marijuana destroyed in Koh Kong province; 3 hectares and 1,200 kg destroyed in Kandal province; over 4 tonnes confiscated in Sihanoukville. Total national seizure: 5 tonnes of marijuana. Koh Kong was characterized as a "Wild West" for illegal activities including substantial, high-quality marijuana production supported by foreign capital. +
News:2002-05-18/Report/koh-kongs-wild-west-era-ending-as-new-thai-bridge-opens-province-was-production-zone-for-asias-finest-quality +
Reuters reported that Koh Kong province, once known as Cambodia's "Wild West," was transitioning away from its criminal economy following the opening of a new bridge to Thailand's Trat province. Until the late 1990s, Koh Kong was "a production zone for some of Asia's finest quality marijuana, grown in staggering quantities," alongside illegal logging and human trafficking. Drug lords had given farmers "tools, seeds and fertilizer to grow cannabis in big jungle plantations" and bought back harvests. Roads had been cut in the 1970s by the Khmer Rouge, leaving the 130,000-population province virtually isolated and accessible only by boat, making it "easy prey for the gangsters." Anti-logging campaigns and drug crackdowns in recent years had begun to steer the economy away from the black market, but experts feared the new road infrastructure could benefit criminal syndicates. +
News:2002-10-26/Report/cambodia-daily-investigation-stung-treng-is-busiest-transit-point-for-golden-triangle-heroin-worldwide-busts-h +
Lengthy Cambodia Daily investigation from Voeun Kham village on the Lao-Cambodian border documented Stung Treng province as the primary gateway for Golden Triangle heroin entering Cambodia. Hundreds of kilograms of heroin and thousands of methamphetamine pills were passing through the province. The heroin route ran from Stung Treng → Kratie → Kompong Cham → overland into Vietnam → by sea or air to Australia, New Zealand, US, and Canada. The article noted that "worldwide busts have fingered Cambodia's massive cannabis exports, but heroin hauls are much less common." Former illegal loggers had turned to drug smuggling after logging bans. Interior Ministry anti-narcotics chief Pich Chivorn confirmed drug smuggling volumes had increased yearly, with 2001–2002 being "a bonanza." Drugs were concealed in Lao coffee shipments transported by river to Cambodian ports. A US DEA 2001 intelligence report confirmed heroin entered Cambodia from Laos via Mekong River boats into Stung Treng. +
News:2004-04-01/Report/academic-study-documents-drug-use-trends-in-three-battambang-villages-cannabis-marginal-compared-to-amphetamin +
The Analyzing Development Issues (ADI) project conducted structured research in three villages on the outskirts of Battambang town (Anchanch, Ocha, and Romchek 1) in February 2004. Of 30 drug users interviewed, ALL reported amphetamines (yaba) as their first and primary drug — none started with cannabis. The study documented the massive ATS flow through Cambodia: UNODC estimated 100,000 methamphetamine tablets entered Cambodia daily from the Golden Triangle via northeastern borders, with 75% re-exported to Thailand. Battambang and Banteay Meanchey provinces were identified as "hot spots" for Thai-origin ATS trafficking. Cannabis appeared only as a survey checkbox option alongside yaba, glue, ecstasy, and heroin, but was not reported as a significant drug of use among the youth sample. The study confirmed US State Department assessments that "corruption remains pervasive in Cambodia" and documented local corruption networks where arrested drug sellers were released after paying fines. +
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime published a comprehensive regional profile documenting Sri Lanka's drug situation as of 2003–2004. The report estimated 500 hectares under illicit cannabis cultivation, concentrated in the dry zones of the Eastern and Southern provinces, with approximately 600,000 cannabis users nationwide. Cannabis seizures reached 73,774 kg in 2003, a significant increase from 25,834 kg in 2002, while cannabis-related arrests rose 29% year-on-year. The report traced historical drug use patterns including opium, noting 60,000–68,000 opium users in the 1920s, government-distributed opium to registered users until mid-century, and methadone detoxification programmes in the 1970s. It documented heroin trafficking from India via the Palk Strait and confirmed Sri Lanka as a transit point for drugs from Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India heading to Europe. The NDDCB estimated 45,000 regular heroin users alongside the 600,000 cannabis users, with drug users proportionally distributed among all ethnic and religious groups. +
The IRIN news service reported a documented increase in illegal drug seizures in Sri Lanka following the end of the 26-year civil war in May 2009. Drug arrests climbed from 19,000 in 2009 to nearly 30,000 in 2010 and 40,000 in 2011, with 19,000 arrested by mid-2012 alone. Heroin and cannabis were the most commonly seized drugs. Analysts linked the surge to the opening of formerly LTTE-controlled northern territories and the dismantling of wartime smuggling networks. Rohan Gunaratna of the International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research described how the LTTE intelligence wing maintained a dedicated heroin trafficking unit with cells in Tamil Nadu, Vanni, and Colombo, noting the business was clandestine even within the LTTE. The NDDCB confirmed Sri Lanka as a transit point for drugs from Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India heading to Europe. Community activists attributed the growing trade partly to lax enforcement and political patronage, while treatment data showed nearly 3,000 persons treated island-wide in 2009, predominantly through government centres. +
News:2012-08-15/Report/post-war-drug-arrests-surge-from-19-000-to-40-000-in-two-years-as-civil-war-ends +
The New Humanitarian (IRIN) reported that drug arrests in Sri Lanka had more than doubled since the end of the 26-year civil war in May 2009. Police arrested 19,000 on drug charges in 2009, rising to nearly 30,000 in 2010 and 40,000 in 2011, with 19,000 arrested in the first half of 2012 alone — on pace to match 2011's full-year total. Heroin and cannabis were the most common drugs seized nationwide. Activists pointed to lax law enforcement and political patronage as factors driving the apparently growing trade. The NDDCB operated four residential treatment centres (Colombo, Kandy, Galle, Urapola) but treated only 3,000 persons island-wide in 2009 — the most recent treatment data available — of whom 2,387 came through government centres, 522 through prisons, and 65 through NGOs. The UNODC 2012 World Drug Report noted slight increases in heroin seizures throughout East and Southeast Asia, including Sri Lanka, pointing to expanding heroin markets. +
News:2012-10-14/Report/vulnerability-and-capacity-assessment-documents-1980-1991-cannabis-cultivation-history-in-koh-kong-coastal-com +
Academic Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment of Koh Kong and Kampot provinces documented historical cannabis cultivation at two Koh Kong coastal locations. At Koh Kapik commune, cannabis was "widely grown from 1980 to 1985" before a 1990s crackdown. At Koh Sralao, mountain forest was cut from 1980 to 1990 specifically to plant "Indian Hemp (Cannabis indica)," with conflict refugees from other provinces driving the activity. Cannabis cultivation and timber selling stopped in 1991 when a ban was introduced and the Ministry of Environment declared the area protected. +
News:2014-09-01/Enforcement/military-police-destroy-523-marijuana-plants-on-chros-okrouch-mountain-kampot +
Provincial military police destroyed 523 marijuana plants valued at an estimated $30,000 on Chros O'Krouch Mountain in Tuek Chhou district, Kampot province. Deputy provincial military police commander Sem Soeum said officers searched for three hours in dense forest after a tip from bamboo collectors before locating two farms. The growers were not identified. No arrests were made. +
An STF team from the Deberawewa Division raided cannabis plantations deep inside the Lunugamwehera Forest Reserve, arresting three suspects from Angunukolapalessa. Officers seized 590 kg of processed cannabis and 50,000 growing plants. The suspects and finished product were to be produced before Tissamaharama Magistrate; the plants were burned on-site. +
News:2015-05-05/Enforcement/7-637-marijuana-plants-burned-in-massive-sesame-intercropped-plantation-phnom-kravanh-pursat +
Police burned 7,637 marijuana plants hidden among sesame plants across 6 square kilometres of rented land in Phnom Kravanh district, Pursat province. The farmer, 65-year-old Oung Eng, had brought the plants from Koh Thom district in Kandal province and told the landowner he would grow cassava and chillies. The landowner became suspicious and reported the activity to police. Eng fled before police arrived. District police chief Vong Saret ordered the plants burned immediately "to send a message." The article references a September 2014 Kampot bust of 500 plants valued at $30,000, and a January 2015 case where a 72-year-old farmer in Banteay Meanchey was caught with 4 kg of dried marijuana but freed due to his age. +