Odisha ganja trade
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| From | Garhjat, Eastern Ghats |
|---|---|
| To | Puri, Cuttack, West Bengal, Delhi, Mumbai, Idukki, Sri Lanka |
| How it travelled | Mixed |
| What moved | Ganja |
|---|---|
| Carried by | Licensed vendors under pass, pilgrims and frontier smugglers in the 1870s to 1890s; traders and networks from other states since the 2010s, according to the police and the press |
| Scale | More than 27 per cent of the cannabis-based drugs seized in India from 2020 to November 2025 was seized in Odisha (Ministry of Home Affairs) |
| Active | 1870s to the present |
|---|---|
| Status | Still in use |
| Legal status | Changed over time |
The Odisha ganja trade is the movement of ganja grown in the hill districts of Odisha, and in the adjoining agency country of Andhra Pradesh, to markets elsewhere in India and abroad. In the 1870s licensed vendors brought ganja from the Garhjat, the Tributary States of Orissa, into Puri under passes from the excise office there.[1]: 70 By the 1890s officials called it Garhjat ganja, and the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission found that its smuggling into the British districts of Orissa "continues unabated".[2]: 356 In 2020 the Narcotics Control Bureau said that illicit cannabis cultivation in India was largely concentrated in the border areas of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, which lie in the hills of the Eastern Ghats. By the bureau's account, ganja from there reached Delhi, Mumbai, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and West Bengal and was smuggled to Sri Lanka.[3] Figures the Ministry of Home Affairs gave to Parliament put Odisha's share of the cannabis-based drugs seized in India between 2020 and November 2025 at more than 27 per cent.[4]
Garhjat ganja, 1870s to 1890s
Into the Orissa districts
Garhjat ganja was consumed only in the three British districts of the Orissa Division: Cuttack, Puri and Balasore. Small quantities were imported into Puri under the excise rules, but more was smuggled into all three districts across a long frontier of jungle.[5]: 5 The Commission found that although the Bengal Government had made rules under which the drugs could be exported from the States, and there was "considerable demand for them", there was "practically no licit trade". Inside the States consumers grew their own, and there was no organised trade.[6]: 108
W. O. Taylor, a pensioned deputy magistrate and deputy collector of Khurda, told the Commission that a considerable amount of Gurjat ganja and patti was smuggled into Cuttack, Puri and Balasore. In his view it came from the Gurjat States and from the Madras Presidency about equally, "in proportion to the length of boundary".[7]: 85, 88 Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, an inspector of excise, described the ways by which it reached Puri. The ganja was smuggled "most extensively" from the Khandpara State through Khurda to Puri, where it had "a ready and constant market" among the pandas; and from the Madras side it came by boat over Chilka Lake.[8]: 173 Ganja from Boudh reached the town of Cuttack by the Mahanadi.[9]
Carriers
At Puri the drug was in demand with the priests of the Jagannath temple. The Bengal excise memorandum of 1893 said that pilgrims, mendicants and others brought it in small quantities as an offering to the priests, and that 80 of the 90 arrests for smuggling in Bengal in 1892–93 were made in Puri.[5]: 10 The Collector of Puri said that pilgrims were not searched.[10]: 71 Brajendra Nath Ray, the excise deputy collector at Puri, thought that most of the smuggling was done by people of Khurda or Puri and not by pilgrims, and put it at no more than five maunds a year in the district under the rules then in force.[11] Kanti Bhushan Sen, the special excise deputy collector at Cuttack, distinguished people who brought in ganja for their own use from others who brought in larger quantities to sell, and put this smuggling for sale at eight maunds a year over the two years before his evidence.[12]
Into the Central Provinces
The ganja also crossed west into the Central Provinces. Most of the trouble there came from smuggling out of Gangpur and Boad into the Sambalpur district.[13]: 73–74 Trimbak Rao Sathe, the Diwan of Sonepur, said that "Banjaras and other labouring classes" brought ganja from Boad into Sonepur State and into Sambalpur.[14]
From the Madras Agency hills
South of the Garhjat, in the hills of the Madras Presidency that now lie in southern Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, the Khonds of the Goomsur hill tracts in Ganjam grew the plant "on a large scale for smoking and for barter in the low country".[15] K. Narainaswamy, inspector of police at Vizianagram, said that the hill people of the Vizagapatam Agency "cultivate for export to the plains".[16] The Commission had "no doubt" that a certain amount of ganja was smuggled from these tracts into Orissa and into the Bastar and Kalahandi States, but it found no evidence that production in the Agency tracts themselves was large.[2]: para. 734
Regulation
Fearing for the excise revenue of Orissa, the Government of Bengal prohibited cultivation within three miles of the British frontier in 1878. In June 1882 it prohibited the import of Garhjat ganja and bhang altogether, though the ban was not enforced until 1884.[2]: 353–354 The three-mile order was withdrawn in 1889, and a notification of 23 March 1892 allowed the import again under separate rules.[5]: 10–11 A vendor now applied to the Collector for a pass naming the State where he would buy, and officials in the State weighed, packed and sealed the bales.[17]: 6 The Commission concluded in 1894 that "the smuggling of Garhjat ganja and bhang continues unabated".[2]: 356 In its resolution on the Commission's report, the Government of India asked the Government of Bengal to suggest remedies for "the smuggling into Orissa of the produce of the Tributary Mahals".[18]: 17 The historian Utathya Chattopadhyaya writes that Garhjat ganja supplied the temple towns of Puri and Cuttack and could also be found in Calcutta.[19]: 100
The trade since 2010
Source area
The Narcotics Control Bureau's annual report for 2014 named the "Andhra- Orissa border" among the places where ganja was trafficked "in substantial quantities".[20]: 11 The bureau's report for 2016 states that there are no estimates of cannabis cultivation or production in India, since all of it is illicit or wild.[21]: 16 In 2020 the bureau said that illicit cultivation was "largely concentrated around the Naxal affected border areas of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha".[3]
In 2015 an official told the news agency IANS that cultivation was "rampant" in eight districts: Angul, Deogarh, Sambalpur, Boudh, Kandhamal, Rayagada, Gajapati and Malkangiri.[22] Al Jazeera reported at the start of 2025 that cultivation was active in six: Koraput, Malkangiri, Rayagada, Gajapati, Boudh and Kandhamal.[23] The northern districts lie in the Garhjat growing region and the southern ones in the Eastern Ghats growing region.
On the Andhra Pradesh side, a report of 2021 from the agency hills of Visakhapatnam said that ganja had been grown there for over four decades but had become widespread only in the previous 15 years.[24] A police campaign begun in October 2021 destroyed more than 6,000 acres by early December.[24] In July 2025 ETV Bharat reported, crediting the state's police and its Eagle task force, that cultivation in the agency that had once covered 11,000 acres had been brought down to near zero. Officials of the Tamil Nadu anti-narcotics task force told a meeting of the bureau that the supply now came mostly from Odisha. Of about 21,736 kg of ganja seized from January to June 2025, 90 per cent was reported to come from Odisha districts.[25] Annual seizures in Andhra Pradesh fell from over 2.01 lakh kg in 2021 to 44,182 kg in 2025, by the Ministry of Home Affairs' figures.[4]
Destinations
In its annual reports the Narcotics Control Bureau said that the main transit routes for ganja ran through Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh in 2014,[20]: 11 and through Assam, Odisha, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland and Chhattisgarh in 2015.[26]: 11 In 2021 the Mumbai police said that a network they had broken up brought five tonnes of ganja from Odisha into Maharashtra every month, three to four tonnes of it for Mumbai and the neighbouring districts.[27] The trade into West Bengal, one of the destinations the bureau names, is described in Cannabis trade in West Bengal.
Kerala. In 2016 Onmanorama reported that ganja planters had taken the local plants of Idukki to the forests of Orissa to grow on a large scale. The crop there was of inferior quality, but it was smuggled into Idukki, repackaged as "Idukki Gold" and sent on to customers. With little ganja left growing in Kerala, the supply came from Orissa and Andhra Pradesh through Tamil Nadu.[28] A column in Kerala Kaumudi in 2021 said that the ganja grown in the Naxalite-affected areas of Andhra and Odisha, known as Sheelavathi, was brought into Kerala through Tamil Nadu and sold as Idukki Gold.[29] In 2025 the Deccan Chronicle reported that traders from Tamil Nadu and Kerala had given high-yielding seed to tribal farmers along the Andhra Pradesh–Odisha border.[30]
Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. In 2017 Kerala's excise commissioner said that Odisha, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh were the main places of large-scale cultivation, and that their ganja reached Kerala through Tamil Nadu; Sri Lankan officials were at the same time reporting more smuggling of "Kerala ganja".[31] Sri Lanka's National Dangerous Drugs Control Board counts "Kerala cannabis" apart from local cannabis: 11,068 arrests and 5,521 kg seized in 2021.[32] In January 2020 police in Telangana said that a group they had arrested carried ganja from Andhra Pradesh to Sri Lanka through Tamil Nadu.[33] In December 2025 the Sri Lankan broadcaster News 1st reported that police in India had broken up a network carrying ganja from the Andhra–Odisha border through Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka; officials called it the first known case of ganja from that region reaching Sri Lanka.[34]
Growers, traders and prices
In 2021 OdishaBytes reported from Malkangiri that traders living far away supplied the seed and fertiliser, that agents bought the ganja from the villages at Rs 300 to 400 a kilogram, and that its price rose to Rs 10,000 a kilogram or more by the time it reached other parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. A senior police officer in the district told the paper that the "real investment" came from interstate networks in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.[35] Al Jazeera reported in 2025 that farmers in Odisha sold their crop to traders for Rs 1,000 to 1,500 a kilogram. A former inspector general of the Odisha Police's Special Task Force told Al Jazeera that the ganja sold for Rs 25,000 a kilogram in India's big cities, and the founder of a non-profit working in the growing districts said that the decline of the insurgency and better transport had helped traders reach the growers.[23]
Prices reported further along the trade:
| Place | Price a kilogram | Year | Reported by |
|---|---|---|---|
| Odisha, at the December harvest | Rs 1,500 | 2016 | Kerala Excise Department[28] |
| Kochi | Rs 35,000 | 2016 | Kerala Excise Department[28] |
| Visakhapatnam agency | Rs 6,000 | 2020 | Telangana police[33] |
| Hyderabad | Rs 11,000 | 2020 | Telangana police[33] |
| Chennai | Rs 12,000–13,000 | 2020 | Telangana police[33] |
| Sri Lanka | up to Rs 18,000 | 2020 | Telangana police[33] |
Hashish oil
Some of the crop is made into hashish oil. Onmanorama reported in 2016 that about 20 kg of ganja made a kilogram of the oil and that Visakhapatnam had become a centre of its production.[28] In July 2026 the Odisha Police said that Koraput and Malkangiri police had shut down a hashish oil unit and seized about 1,800 litres of the oil.[36]
Seizures and eradication
Seizures measure enforcement, not the size of the trade. The Narcotics Control Bureau's state-wise figures, in kilograms of ganja seized:
| Year | Odisha | Andhra Pradesh | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2014 | 25,588 | 7,884 | NCB annual report[20]: 11 |
| 2015 | 19,220 | not given | NCB annual report[26]: 12 |
| 2016 | 30,798 | 129,409 | NCB annual report[21]: 18 |
| 2017 | 55,875 | 78,768 | NCB annual report[37]: 20 |
| 2021 | 171,713 | 200,588 | NCB annual report, reported by ETV Bharat[38] |
In 2015 Odisha headed the bureau's chart of the five states with the most ganja seized; Andhra Pradesh was not among them.[26]: 12 The national figures for 2021 differ: the bureau's annual report put seizures at 749,761 kg,[38] while the International Narcotics Control Board, citing the bureau, put them at 675,631 kg of cannabis.[39]: para. 747 The Ministry of Home Affairs told the Lok Sabha in 2026 that 38.89 lakh kg of cannabis-based drugs had been seized in India from 2020 to November 2025, 10.65 lakh kg of it in Odisha.[4]
Odisha destroyed cannabis on 2,065 of the 3,198 acres destroyed in India in 2014, 311 of 818 acres in 2015 and 2,211 of 8,438 acres in 2016, by the bureau's count.[20]: 20[26]: 21[21]: 26 In December 2025 Odisha's law minister told the state assembly that ganja on 52,235 acres had been destroyed over five years, and that Kandhamal remained the main centre of cultivation.[40] The Odisha Police said in July 2026 that from July 2024 to March 2026 it had seized 421 tonnes of ganja, destroyed cannabis on 63,720 acres and arrested 3,502 people, and that it had drawn up action plans for eight vulnerable districts.[36] In February 2026 Andhra Pradesh and Odisha agreed on a joint drive along their border, Operation Samyukta, sharing intelligence on smuggling routes, storage places and hashish oil works.[41]
The Maoist question
Officials have linked the trade to the Maoist insurgency in the same hills. In 2015 the Director General of the Odisha Police said that the Maoists were "directly and indirectly involved" in cannabis cultivation and encouraged farmers to grow it.[22] In 2020 the Narcotics Control Bureau said that it was exploring links between the proceeds of the trade and the Naxal-affected areas.[3] Pushpita Das, in a paper on drug trafficking and security, notes the belief that the Maoists had begun to grow cannabis in Odisha and Chhattisgarh to fund their movement.[42]: 9 Others dispute the link. A former member of the Maoists' central committee told The News Minute in 2021 that the Maoists had never been actively involved in the ganja trade because they did not need its money.[24] In a letter reported the same year, a Maoist leader accused the police and political leaders of profiting from ganja cultivation while the tribal farmers did not.[43]
See also
References
- ↑ Papers Relating to the Consumption of Ganja and Other Drugs in India (Return to an Address of the House of Commons, dated 21 February 1893). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 1893 – via Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. XVII, "Systems of Native States", paras. 696–739, pp. 343–358 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "NCB seizes 5,477 kg cannabis, arrests 13 after country-wide ops". ETV Bharat. Press Trust of India. 8 July 2020. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "Odisha tops cannabis seizures; India seizes 38.89 lakh kg since 2020". OrissaPOST. Press Trust of India. 11 February 2026. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Memorandum on hemp drugs in Bengal, by Mr. K. G. Gupta, Commissioner of Excise, Bengal". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. III: Appendices, Miscellaneous. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. paras. 8–19 and 44, pp. 4–6 and 10–11 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. VII, "Trade and movement of the hemp drugs", paras. 284–286, p. 108 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. W. O. Taylor, Special Deputy Collector, Land Acquisition, East Coast Railway, and Pensioned Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, Khurda, Orissa". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. IV: Evidence of Witnesses from Bengal and Assam. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Bengal witness no. 36, pp. 85–88 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise, Bengal". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. IV: Evidence of Witnesses from Bengal and Assam. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. pp. 172–173 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Babu Abhilas Chandra Mukerjee, Brahmin, Deputy Magistrate and Deputy Collector, on deputation as 2nd Inspector of Excise, Bengal". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. IV: Evidence of Witnesses from Bengal and Assam. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. p. 174 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Mr. H. R. H. Coxe, Offg. Magistrate and Collector of Puri". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. IV: Evidence of Witnesses from Bengal and Assam. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Bengal witness no. 28, pp. 70–71 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Babu Brajendra Nath Ray, Excise Deputy Collector, Puri". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. IV: Evidence of Witnesses from Bengal and Assam. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Bengal witness no. 70, pp. 200–201 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Babu Kanti Bhushan Sen, Baidya, Special Excise Deputy Collector of Cuttack". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. IV: Evidence of Witnesses from Bengal and Assam. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Bengal witness no. 62, oral evidence, pp. 156–157 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Memorandum on hemp drugs in the Central Provinces, by Mr. H. V. Drake-Brockman, Officiating Commissioner of Excise". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. III: Appendices, Miscellaneous. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. paras. 3–66, pp. 57–74 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Trimbak Rao Sathe, Extra Assistant Commissioner, and Diwan of the Sonepur State". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VI: Evidence of Witnesses from Central Provinces and Madras. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Central Provinces witness no. 13, pp. 20–24 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Memorandum on hemp drugs in Madras, by Mr. W. O. Horne, Acting Secretary, Board of Revenue, Madras". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. III: Appendices, Miscellaneous. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. paras. 8–10, p. 83 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Evidence of Rai Bahadur K. Narainaswamy, Telaga, Inspector of Police, Vizianagram". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. VI: Evidence of Witnesses from Central Provinces and Madras. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. Madras witness no. 69, pp. 261–262 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Memorandum on hemp drugs in Bengal, by Mr. K. G. Gupta, Commissioner of Excise, Bengal". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. III: Appendices, Miscellaneous. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. paras. 22–43, pp. 6–10 – via Internet Archive.
- ↑ Government of India (21 March 1895). Resolution No. 1369 Ex. [on the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission] (Report). Calcutta: Finance and Commerce Department, Separate Revenue (Excise). VIII. Control and taxation, paras. 46–67, pp. 14–22 – via National Library of Scotland.
- ↑ Chattopadhyaya, Utathya (June 2026). Ganja Matters: Empire and the Pursuits of Cannabis in British India. Oakland: University of California Press. doi:10.1525/luminos.276. ISBN 9780520425699.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Narcotics Control Bureau. Annual Report 2014 (PDF) (Report). Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Narcotics Control Bureau. Annual Report 2016 (PDF) (Report). Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 "'Maoists encouraging farmers to grow cannabis in Odisha'". Oneindia. Indo-Asian News Service. 3 April 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Singh, Gurvinder (1 January 2025). "India's farmers risk jail to grow lucrative cannabis crop". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Oommen, Paul (7 December 2021). "Ground report: Why Andhra cops are destroying the ganja crops they ignored for years". The News Minute. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ ETV Bharat (7 July 2025). "Erasing The Stain: Ganja Cultivation Wiped Out From Alluri District". ETV Bharat. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Narcotics Control Bureau. Annual Report 2015 (PDF) (Report). Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Tribune Web Desk (13 February 2021). "Mumbai police seize 1,800 kg ganja smuggled from Odisha; 2 held". The Tribune. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 "Psychedelic 'Idukki Gold', made in Andhra & Orissa". Onmanorama. 27 July 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ അഖിൽ സഹായി (8 October 2021). ഇടുക്കി ഗോൾഡ് ചമഞ്ഞ 'ശീലാവതി' ['Sheelavathi' posing as Idukki Gold]. Kerala Kaumudi (in മലയാളം). Retrieved 21 October 2026.
- ↑ "Adivasi Face Double Whammy over Maoist Links, Ganja Smuggling". Deccan Chronicle. 23 January 2025. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ TNM Staff (16 November 2017). "Sri Lankan officials raise alarm over increasing smuggling of 'Kerala Ganja'". The News Minute. Retrieved 19 October 2026.
- ↑ National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Drug related statistics 2021 (PDF) (Report). Research Division, National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. pp. 2, 6–7. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Nitin B. (24 January 2020). "Telangana police bust gang smuggling ganja to Sri Lanka from Andhra, 4 held". The News Minute. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ "Cannabis Network Linking Odisha to Sri Lanka Exposed". News 1st. Colombo. 29 December 2025. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Pattnaik, Satyanarayan (28 June 2021). "Focus Malkangiri: Raids, Arrests Fail To Stop Villagers From Growing Ganja; But Who Is Minting The Profit?". OdishaBytes. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Post News Network (1 July 2026). "Odisha Police seizes ganja worth Rs 2,100 crore, destroys hemp valued at Rs 1,911 crore". OrissaPOST. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Narcotics Control Bureau. Annual Report 2017 (PDF) (Report). Narcotics Control Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 "AP stood top in total ganja seized in India during 2021, says NCB annual report". ETV Bharat. 29 September 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2023). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2022 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-148370-3. E/INCB/2022/1.
- ↑ Nikhandia, Pratima (6 December 2025). "Odisha reports record ganja seizures, 52,000 acre-plantation destroyed over 5 years". OdishaTV. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Pranathi, Laxmi (25 February 2026). "Andhra Pradesh, Odisha To Launch 'Operation Samyukta' To Decimate Border Drug Cartels". Deccan Chronicle. Retrieved 30 October 2026.
- ↑ Das, Pushpita (2019). "Drug-trafficking as a Non-traditional Security Threat: Emerging Trends and Responses". Artha – Journal of Social Sciences. 18 (4): 1–23. doi:10.12724/ajss.51.1.
- ↑ Post News Network (4 November 2021). "Maoists see red in ganja destruction". OrissaPOST. Retrieved 30 October 2026.