Jump to content
Toggle search
Toggle menu
  • 4.8K articles
  • 1.7K files
  • 88 users
  • 40.3K edits
Landrace.wiki
Toggle preferences menu
Toggle personal menu
Not logged in
Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits.

Mexico

From Landrace.wiki
More actions


Mexico
México
Near Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur
Near Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur
Capital Mexico City
Continent North America
Subregion Central America
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal (licensed medical use; personal-use authorisations by court ruling)
Status Since 2021
Enforcement Possession above 5 g may be prosecuted; the army and navy destroy fields
Documentation
Growing Regions 1
Growing Areas 0
Accessions 2
Conservation
Populations none documented yet


Mexico is a country in North America where cannabis was grown from the 16th century as cáñamo, a fibre crop of the Spanish.[1]: 18 By the early 20th century the plant had become marihuana, a drug that the Mexican press tied to madness and violence.[2] A sanitary decree published in 1920 prohibited the cultivation and sale of marihuana throughout the country.[3]

In the 1980s Mexico and Colombia were the leading producers of the marijuana reaching the United States.[4] From 1990 to 2020 the army and navy recorded destroying 515,435 hectares of cannabis. Ninety-nine per cent of all the crops they destroyed in those years were in municipalities of nine states.[5]

Cannabis is a controlled narcotic under the General Health Law and the Federal Penal Code. A decree of 2017 opened its medical and scientific use. Regulations for it followed in January 2021.[6][7] In June 2021 the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation declared unconstitutional the clauses that limited cannabis to medical and scientific purposes, so that the federal health authority must authorise adults to grow, hold and use it for themselves; the ruling allows no sale.[8]

Geography

In 1987, United States intelligence reported, traffickers were encouraging cultivation in new areas, and cannabis was grown "in virtually every state in Mexico".[9] In 1989 United States intelligence estimated that the main growing areas were in the western states of Chihuahua, Sonora, Sinaloa, Guerrero, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Jalisco, Michoacán and Oaxaca, and believed that Veracruz, on the east coast, also held significant growing areas.[10]

The crop destruction recorded by the army and navy from 1990 to 2020 was concentrated in municipalities of Chihuahua, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Nayarit, Jalisco, Michoacán, Guerrero and Oaxaca. Most destruction of cannabis took place from August to October.[5] In 2018 the army destroyed 774 hectares in Sinaloa, 668 in Oaxaca, 432 in Durango and 408 in Chihuahua, almost 90 per cent of the cannabis it eradicated that year.[11]

Botanists have collected cannabis escaped from cultivation on the banks of the Tamazula River and at El Purgatorio in the municipality of Tepehuanes, both in Durango. They have found it as a weed on ranches in northern Sonora, in a garden at Xalapa and in a maize field at Tixcacaltuyub in Yucatán.[12][13][14][15][16]

Demographics

Communities with cannabis relationships

The anthropologist Roberto Williams García described in 1975 the ritual use of cannabis, called la santa rosa, by an Indigenous people living in small communities near the Gulf of Mexico; he had taken part in their ceremonies in 1953.[17]: 133, 144 The ethnographer Lourdes Báez Cubero ties his descriptions to the Tepehua, the subject of his monograph of 1963. The name santa Rosa is known among Otomí and Tepehua groups across parts of Hidalgo, Puebla and Veracruz. Among the eastern Otomí of Santa Ana Hueytlalpan in Hidalgo the name covers both cannabis and Datura stramonium.[18]: 155, 157–158

In the catalogue of Mexican plant names that the botanist Maximino Martínez first published in 1923, cannabis is called Doña Juanita, mariguana, marihuana, grifa, Juanita, mota and Rosa María. It is macusi in the language of the Huichol, tujtu in that of the Cuicatec and hapis-coil in that of the Seri.[19]: 73

Agriculture

The Spanish grew cannabis in New Spain for its fibre. Sebastián Ramírez de Fuenleal ordered its cultivation on arriving in 1530. The most successful plantings were at Atlixco in Puebla, where sowing began in 1587.[1]: 18–19 Experiments near Mexico City from 1775 yielded little hemp.[20] Between 1777 and 1796 the Crown issued more than 20 orders to revive the crop, which was then sown from Papantla in Veracruz to San Blas in Nayarit and around the capital; a Royal Hemp and Flax Factory was founded at Chalco in 1781. None of these plantings lasted more than a few decades. Schievenini lists poor irrigation, poor land, the difficulty of turning the plants into fibre and a lack of good seed among the causes.[1]: 20

In the 1980s the drug crop was grown by cultivators who "ranged from poor campesinos working on small plots of land to well-organized groups operating on large tracts".[4]: 12 In 1989 United States intelligence found it "cultivated primarily by small-time farmers who often rely on it as their only cash crop", with larger organisations controlling processing and transport.[10]: 66 Families interviewed in Nayarit and Oaxaca for a study of 2024 grow, harvest and sell cannabis as they do maize or squash, and share the knowledge with children, friends and neighbours. They hire outside help for parts of the sowing and harvest.[21]

The decree of 2017 allowed products containing cannabis derivatives with 1 per cent THC or less, and having broad industrial uses, to be sold, exported and imported under sanitary rules.[6]

Cannabis in Mexico

History

Main article: History of cannabis in Mexico

The historian Isaac Campos writes that a conquistador, Pedro Quadrado, claimed to have been the first to grow cannabis in the Americas and that the Spanish Crown first ordered its subjects to sow it in the New World in June 1545.[2] The historians Manuel Díaz-Ordóñez and Antonio José Rodríguez Hernández call the date of 1545 a myth based on isolated documents: hemp seed was shipped to the Indies in 1513, 1514 and 1520. The shipments of the 1520s went to the first Spanish settlements in Mesoamerica.[22]: 5–6 Schievenini finds no evidence of cannabis cultivation in the Americas before the 16th century.[1]: 18 A United Nations survey of 1951 asserted, citing a French article of 1920, that hemp was known in Mexico before the Conquest and used in religious rites.[23] Users of the cannabis forum ICMag have suggested that cannabis seed or plants from South-East Asia reached Mexico and other Spanish colonies on the Manila galleons,[24] and that Lebanese immigrants of the 19th century "probably brought the hash plant genetics" to Veracruz and Puebla.[25]

Campos dates the plant's entry into local medical and religious practice to the 1770s, when herb sellers sold its seeds and leaves as pipiltzintzintlis, "the most noble princes".[2] The identification goes back to the polymath José Antonio Alzate, who wrote in 1772 that he had obtained some pipiltzintzintlis, recognised them as hemp leaves and seeds and grown hemp from the seed. Nidia Olvera-Hernández and José Domingo Schievenini-Stefanoni judge the link unproven: they find no document in which the Inquisition connected the forbidden pipiltzintzintli with cannabis, even after an edict of 1769 that named it beside peyote.[19]: 67–69, 74 Other writers have identified the plant as Salvia divinorum or as a climbing legume of Tepoztlán.[19]: 64, 73

The Farmacopea mexicana of 1846 distinguished cannabis índica, also called "Rosa María", "cáñamo del país" and "marihuana", from cannabis sativa, "cáñamo".[26]: 118 Campos places the appearance of the names rosa maría and mariguana among nationalist botanists of the 1850s.[2] Schievenini and Pérez Ricart date the oldest explicit description of smoking cannabis in Mexico to a pharmacology textbook of 1853, which says that "some Mexicans" smoked the leaves. In 1859 the physician Crescencio García wrote that it was smoked mixed with tobacco, chiefly by the convicts of the island of Mezcala and the jail of Guadalajara. In 1886 the physician Genaro Pérez wrote a study of marihuana.[26]: 120–121 Campos found that none of the more than 400 Mexican newspaper articles he analysed questioned the stereotype of madness and violence.[2]

The Constitution of 1917 gave Congress and the Consejo de Salubridad power over a "campaign against alcoholism and against the sale of substances that degenerate the race".[27] Under it the Departamento de Salubridad Pública issued the provisions of 1920 on the trade in products that could foster "vices that degenerate the race" and on the cultivation of plants that could serve the same end. Signed on 2 March and published in the Diario Oficial de la Federación on 15 March 1920, they strictly prohibited the cultivation of and trade in marihuana and punished breaches with fines of 100 to 5,000 pesos and seizure of the drug.[3] Schievenini notes that the ban was imposed by a health authority without the courts and that no treaty obliged Mexico to prohibit cannabis in 1920.[27] The sanitary code of 1926 classed cannabis as an "enervating drug" and its users as addicts to be treated in special hospitals.[27]

In December 1938 the psychiatrist Leopoldo Salazar Viniegra, drawing on 14 years at the asylum of Mixcoac, published "El mito de la marihuana" in Criminalia; he concluded that neither crime nor madness was directly related to its use.[28] A Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías signed by President Lázaro Cárdenas on 5 January 1940 was published on 17 February. It replaced the regulation of 1931 and its system of prosecuting addicts and required the health department to acquire drugs for treating them.[29][30] A decree of 7 June 1940, published on 3 July, suspended it indefinitely: the war in Europe had made those drugs too hard to obtain. The regulation of 23 September 1931 returned to force.[30] Carlos Pérez Ricart attributes the suspension to pressure from several institutions of the United States government.[31] Gerardo González Ascencio adds that the United States had imposed an embargo on medicines and drugs vital to medical practice.[28]: 101, 127

Mexico signed the Hague Opium Convention of 1912 but did not ratify it.[31] It signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs on 24 July 1961 and ratified it on 18 April 1967.[32] It acceded to the Convention on Psychotropic Substances on 20 February 1975, with a reservation for Indigenous peoples who use wild plants containing psychotropic substances in magical or religious rites,[33] became a party to the Single Convention as amended by its Protocol of 1972 on 27 April 1977[34] and ratified the 1988 Convention on 11 April 1990.[35]

Cultivation

In 1951 clandestine cultivation in Mexico was flourishing.[23] A Mexican official, Juan Barona, wrote in 1964 that the plant grew wild in the country and that illicit plantations were hidden in forests and maize fields; one had been found near Tetela del Volcán, Morelos, in a campaign of 1961.[36]

United States intelligence estimated that about 9,000 hectares of cannabis were grown in Mexico in 1987. The large fields of the north, run on agribusiness lines, were not worked by small farmers. Trafficking organisations had taught many farmers to grow with irrigation, improved seed and fertiliser.[9] In 1989 improved survey methods raised the estimate to roughly 58,000 hectares. Some sinsemilla was grown, but most of the crop was of the commercial variety.[10]: 65–66

Samples of flowering tops collected in 1973 near 12 cities in 10 states were analysed at the University of Mississippi. Seven seed stocks from them were grown there in 1974 and 1976. The Mexican samples averaged 1.69 per cent Δ9-THC, from 0.14 to 2.97 per cent. All but one held only traces of CBD or none; the exception came from Poza Rica, Veracruz. The chemists concluded that Mexican cannabis was "almost exclusively of the drug type". The plant from which the university produced the National Institute on Drug Abuse's research marijuana came from seed obtained near Acapulco, Guerrero.[37]

Preparations and consumption

In the 19th century the leaves were smoked, alone or mixed with tobacco.[26]: 120–121 The pharmacopoeia of 1874 kept the distinction of 1846 between cáñamo, identified as cannabis sativa, and marihuana, identified as cannabis índica; only the second was classed as narcotic.[26]: 118 When cannabis was collected in a maize field at Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatán, in 1980, the collector noted its use as a medicine against vomiting and diarrhoea.[16]

Religious and cultural use

In Williams García's account, la santa rosa is a sacred plant with a myth of divine origin. It is always on the altar table. Everyone connected with the cult eats it, never alone. Its chief observed effect is talkativeness: the devotees say that the herb makes them speak. The priests told him that the plant grown in the fields reaches more than a metre and that a smaller kind grows on the banks of streams; they distinguish a masculine and a feminine form by the size of the seed.[17]: 133–134, 141 Báez Cubero writes that the diviners (bädi) of Santa Ana Hueytlalpan seem formerly to have used Datura and to have replaced it with cannabis, which was more widely used in the rest of the region.[18]: 167

Trade and commerce

In 1951 there was a large illicit export from Mexico to the United States and Cuba.[23] In Barona's account traffickers bought the crop cheaply from the growers, packed it in bundles of a pound or a kilogram and smuggled it into the United States.[36] The political scientist Richard Craig wrote in 1980 that "Mexican marijuana dominated the U.S. market until quite recently".[38] Marín García and his co-authors describe a popular Mexican account that traces the growth of cultivation in the second half of the 20th century to American soldiers in the Korean and Vietnam wars and to the hippie movement.[21]

In 2016 Mexico made 18 per cent of the world's seizures of cannabis herb, second to the United States. Its seizures that year, at 841 tons, were the lowest since 1995.[39] By 2025, on Mexico's own statistics, production and trafficking had shifted from plant-based drugs, including marijuana, to synthetic drugs.[40]: 265

The General Health Law and the Federal Penal Code govern cannabis as a narcotic. A decree of 20 August 2009 added to the law a table of the maximum quantities for personal and immediate use, which sets 5 grams for "Cannabis Sativa, Indica o Mariguana". No criminal action is brought against a user or dependent person holding no more than that quantity for strictly personal use. Holding a thousand times the quantity is presumed to be for trafficking. Unauthorised possession that cannot be presumed to be for trafficking carries four to seven and a half years in prison.[41]

The decree of 19 June 2017 directed the Secretaría de Salud to regulate the medical use of the pharmacological derivatives of "cannabis sativa, índica y americana o marihuana" and their research and national production. It made sowing, cultivating and harvesting the plant for medical and scientific purposes lawful under federal authorisation.[6] The regulations under it were signed on 8 January 2021 and published on 12 January.[7]

On 4 November 2015 the First Chamber of the Supreme Court, by four votes, granted amparo to four named persons against the provisions of the General Health Law that prevented the health authority from authorising their personal use of cannabis; it refused protection to the association they had formed, the Sociedad Mexicana de Autoconsumo Responsable y Tolerante.[42]: 91–92 Four further amparos decided in 2018 made the holding binding precedent.[8] The Chamber of Deputies passed a bill to regulate cannabis on 10 March 2021; the Senate leadership postponed debate on it.[43] The court had given Congress a deadline to legislate. When it expired without a law, the full Supreme Court, in its session of 28 June 2021, struck the words "only for medical and scientific purposes" from articles 235 and 247 of the General Health Law. The health authority must authorise adults to acquire, sow, grow, harvest, prepare, hold and transport cannabis for their own use, but the authorisation never extends to import, trade or supply.[8] The declaration was published in the Diario Oficial on 15 July 2021.[44]

The Federal Commission for the Protection against Sanitary Risks (COFEPRIS) issued 7,019 authorisations from April 2019 to March 2024. Of 13 bills to regulate recreational use introduced in Congress from September 2018, 12 were still in committee in April 2024.[45] Adrián Jiménez-Sandoval writes that by July 2024 COFEPRIS had still issued no guidelines and went on refusing authorisations, although no legal bar remained.[46] On 4 February 2026 the full Supreme Court fell one vote short of declaring unconstitutional the part of article 478 that sets the limit of 5 grams; by five votes to four it granted amparo to a homeless person in Ciudad Juárez who had been prosecuted in 2021 for carrying 14.26 grams.[47]

Enforcement

Main articles: Herbicide spraying in Mexico and United States and cannabis eradication abroad

In 1969 the United States government of Richard Nixon pressed Mexico to change its anti-drug strategy through Operation Intercept, which required the inspection of every vehicle crossing the border.[48][49] The historian Adela Cedillo dates the Mexican eradication campaigns: Operation Canador (1969–1975), Trizo (1976), which airlifted troops by helicopter and introduced the spraying of herbicides such as paraquat and 2,4-D on the crops, and Condor (1977–1988).[48]: 8 The Mexican government began spraying illicit fields with paraquat in late 1975 and intensified the programme in 1976. Chemists at the University of Mississippi tested 160 samples of confiscated marijuana and reported in 1978 that 20 contained paraquat, none of them seized before 20 October 1976.[50] In March 1978, 13 of 61 samples of marijuana from the south-western United States carried the herbicide. A national survey found it in 33 of 910 specimens and 23 of 180 from the states bordering Mexico.[51]

The Mexican government reported eradicating 3,639 hectares of cannabis in 1984, 1,738 in 1985,[4]: 12 2,970 in 1986 and 3,580 in 1987.[9] United States intelligence believed that almost 16,000 hectares were eradicated in 1989. The government reported seizing 448 tonnes of marijuana that year against 278 in 1988.[10]: 67 The government reported eradicating 5,096 hectares in 2013 and 5,679 in 2014.[52] For 2017 the United States report gives 4,231 hectares, from the Mexican attorney general's office;[53]: 213 the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime gives 4,193 hectares. Its figures fall to 2,264 hectares in 2018 and 1,041 in 2021.[54] From January to August 2024 Mexico reported eradicating 1,618 hectares, 40 per cent more than in the same months of 2023.[40]: 265 Seizures of cannabis herb reported to the UNODC fell from 400,310 kilograms in 2017 to 91,336 kilograms in 2021.[55]

Marín García and his co-authors write that peasant communities bore the brunt of the state's repression of illegal plantations and of exploitation by organised crime.[21]

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki:

Region
Sierra Madre Occidental

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki: No growing areas documented yet.

Accessions

Map

List

Accession IDNameCollectedArea
CBG-MEX-SIN-0120120001Mexico Jarilla Sinaloa 2012
HCG-MEX-UNK-0120230001Acapulco Gold 2023

Conservation status

Forty-nine preserved specimens of cannabis from Mexico are listed in the Global Biodiversity Information Facility.[56] Two sheets in the United States National Herbarium were collected by A. Lepart in 1896 and 1900.[57][58] A sheet collected by W. Schaffner was acquired by the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris in January 1885.[59] George B. Hinton collected the plant at Rincón in the Temascaltepec district in 1935.[60] Later sheets are held in Mexican herbaria, among them those of the UNAM Institute of Biology and of INECOL.[56]

The Germplasm Resources Information Network of the United States holds one cannabis accession of Mexican origin, G 33385, "Mexican True Sativa Herm": seed donated by a United States farm and received in July 2022, with no collecting site recorded, classed as a landrace and not available for distribution.[61]

Recent news

ArticleDateCategory
News:2026-09-10/Policy/supreme-court-rules-that-authorised-users-may-prepare-cannabis-food-for-personal-consumptionPolicy
News:1977-01-16/Eradication/operation-condor-against-drug-crops-begins-in-culiacán-with-a-military-paradeEradication

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Schievenini, José Domingo (2024). "La prohibición del cannabis en México: hacia una historia de su presente" (PDF). In Derbez de la Cruz, Carlos Emiliano; Flores, Imer B.; Orozco N., Emanuel (eds.). 4 20 diálogo de saberes: hacia una regulación integral del cannabis y revisión de la política de drogas en México. Serie Doctrina Jurídica (in español). Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas. pp. 17–43. ISBN 978-607-30-8572-4.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Campos, Isaac (2012). "Introduction". Home Grown: Marijuana and the Origins of Mexico's War on Drugs. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 1–6. doi:10.5149/9780807882689_campos.4. ISBN 978-0-8078-3538-8.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Departamento de Salubridad Pública (15 March 1920). "Disposiciones sobre el comercio de productos que pueden ser utilizados para fomentar vicios que degeneren la raza, y sobre el cultivo de plantas que pueden ser empleadas con el mismo fin". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español): 1189. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (June 1987). The NNICC Report 1985–1986: The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States from Foreign and Domestic Sources in 1985 and 1986 (with Near Term Projections) (PDF) (Report) – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Espino, Manuel (15 April 2021). "Lanza MUCD micrositio de datos abiertos sobre aseguramientos y destrucción de cultivos". El Universal (in español). Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Decreto por el que se reforman y adicionan diversas disposiciones de la Ley General de Salud y del Código Penal Federal". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español). 19 June 2017. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Secretaría de Salud (12 January 2021). "Reglamento de la Ley General de Salud en Materia de Control Sanitario para la Producción, Investigación y Uso Medicinal de la Cannabis y sus Derivados Farmacológicos" (PDF). Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español): 328–345. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación, Tribunal Pleno (28 June 2021). "Declaratoria General de Inconstitucionalidad 1/2018" (PDF) (in español). Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (April 1988). The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States: The NNICC Report 1987 (PDF) (Report). pp. 11–12. Retrieved 14 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee (June 1990). The NNICC Report 1989: The Supply of Illicit Drugs to the United States (PDF) (Report). pp. 65–67. Retrieved 14 October 2026 – via National Criminal Justice Reference Service.
  11. ↑ MND Staff (26 August 2019). "Marijuana plantations destroyed by military down 70% in five years". Mexico News Daily. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  12. ↑ "Occurrence 1897371461: Cannabis sativa L., IEB 177280". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  13. ↑ "Occurrence 1893745728: Cannabis sativa L., IEB 90077". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  14. ↑ "Occurrence 1895928678: Cannabis sativa L., USON 14363". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  15. ↑ "Occurrence 2629640991: Cannabis sativa L., XAL 58991". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Occurrence 3307939853: Cannabis indica Lam., MEXU 875755". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Williams-García, Roberto (1975). "The Ritual Use of Cannabis in Mexico". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 133–146. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.133.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Báez Cubero, Lourdes (2012). "El uso ritual de la "santa Rosa" entre los otomíes orientales de Hidalgo: el caso de Santa Ana Hueytlalpan" (PDF). Cuicuilco (in español). 19 (53): 155–174. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Olvera-Hernández, Nidia Andrea; Schievenini-Stefanoni, José Domingo (2017). "Denominaciones indígenas de la marihuana en México. Investigación documental de la relación entre el pipiltzintzintli y la planta de cannabis (siglos XVI–XIX)". Cultura y Droga (in español). 22 (24): 59–77. doi:10.17151/culdr.2017.22.24.4.
  20. ↑ Díaz Ordóñez, M. (2019). "Las nuevas periferias americanas en la circulación de cáñamo y jarcia para la construcción naval militar española en el siglo XVIII". Magallánica: Revista de Historia Moderna (in español). 6 (11): 196. Retrieved 4 October 2026.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Marín García, Jorge Luis; Fraga, Paulo Cesar Pontes; Arellano Ruiz, Esmeralda (2024). "Extractivismo en siembra, cultivo, distribución y aprovechamiento del cannabis a partir de las actualizaciones legales mexicanas sobre tales actividades". Inter-Acciones. Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades (in español). 2 (3): 61–76. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  22. ↑ Díaz-Ordóñez, M.; Rodríguez Hernández, A.J. (2017). "Cannabis sativa y Chile (1577–1700): un insumo al servicio del Imperio". TEMPUS Revista en Historia General (in español) (6): 1–21. doi:10.17533/udea.tempus.n6a01.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Bouquet, J. (1951). "Cannabis (concluded)". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 22–45.
  24. ↑ Gypsy Nirvana (1 December 2025). "question for sam the skunkman on the original haze". International Cannagraphic Magazine. post #8,909. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  25. ↑ mexcurandero420 (12 March 2026). "The Nevils Haze and Nevils Haze hybrids discussion thread". International Cannagraphic Magazine. post #7,750. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Schievenini, José Domingo; Pérez Ricart, Carlos A. (2020). "Pasado y presente de los usos medicinales del cannabis en México". Redes. Revista de Estudios Sociales de la Ciencia y la Tecnología (in español). 26 (50): 115–145. doi:10.48160/18517072re50.11.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Schievenini Stefanoni, José Domingo (2021). "La prohibición nacional del cannabis en México: revisión histórica de la relación entre leyes y ciencia". Nóesis. Revista de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades (in español). 30 (60): 20–44. doi:10.20983/noesis.2021.2.2.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 González Ascencio, Gerardo (2025). "La labor científica del médico Leopoldo Salazar Viniegra en México y el Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías de 1940". Alegatos (in español) (119): 109. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  29. ↑ Departamento de Salubridad Pública (17 February 1940). "Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español): 5. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Departamento de Salubridad Pública (3 July 1940). "Decreto que suspende la vigencia del Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español): 12. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Pérez Ricart, Carlos A. (2021). "Estados Unidos frente a la promulgación y suspensión en México del Reglamento de Toxicomanías de 1940". Foro Internacional (in español). 61 (3): 649–686. doi:10.24201/fi.v61i3.2775.
  32. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  33. ↑ "Convention on Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 16. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  34. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961: status". United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  35. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 19. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Barona, Juan (1964). "Some aspects of narcotics control in Mexico". Bulletin on Narcotics (3). United Nations: 1–5. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  37. ↑ Turner, C.E.; ElSohly, H.N.; Lewis, G.S.; Lopez-Santibanez, I.; Carranza, J. (1982). "Constituents of Cannabis sativa L., XX: the cannabinoid content of Mexican variants grown in Mexico and in Mississippi, United States of America". Bulletin on Narcotics. 34 (1): 45–59. PMID 6923753.
  38. ↑ Craig, Richard (1980). "Operation Condor: Mexico's Antidrug Campaign Enters a New Era". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs. 22 (3): 345–363. doi:10.2307/165493.
  39. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018). World Drug Report 2018, Booklet 3: Analysis of Drug Markets (PDF) (Report). United Nations. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2025). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Volume 1: Drug and Chemical Control (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  41. ↑ "Decreto por el que se reforman, adicionan y derogan diversas disposiciones de la Ley General de Salud, del Código Penal Federal y del Código Federal de Procedimientos Penales". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español). 20 August 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  42. ↑ Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación, Primera Sala (4 November 2015). "Amparo en revisión 237/2014" (PDF) (in español). Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  43. ↑ Human Rights Watch (23 April 2021). "Mexico: Reform Marijuana Policy". Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  44. ↑ "Sentencia dictada por el Tribunal Pleno de la Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación en la Declaratoria General de Inconstitucionalidad 1/2018". Diario Oficial de la Federación (in español). 15 July 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  45. ↑ Sánchez Bolaño, Camila (15 April 2024). "Puff, Puff, Pass? The cloudy legality of cannabis in Mexico". Mexico News Daily. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  46. ↑ Jiménez-Sandoval, Adrián (2025). "A cinco años de la cannabis legal: una evaluación de las autorizaciones para consumo personal de cannabis". Inter Disciplina (in español). 13 (37): 69–93. doi:10.22201/ceiich.24485705e.2025.37.92502.
  47. ↑ Saldaña, Iván Evair (4 February 2026). "Se divide Corte por límite de portación de mariguana para consumo personal". La Jornada (in español). Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Cedillo, Adela (May 2021). Operation Condor, the War on Drugs, and Counterinsurgency in the Golden Triangle (1977–1983) (PDF) (Report). Kellogg Institute for International Studies Working Paper. University of Notre Dame. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  49. ↑ Doyle, Kate (13 April 2003). "Operation Intercept: The Perils of Unilateralism". National Security Archive. George Washington University. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  50. ↑ Turner, Carlton E.; Cheng, Ping C.; Torres, Lolita M.; ElSohly, Mahmoud A. (1978). "Detection and analysis of paraquat in confiscated marijuana samples". Bulletin on Narcotics. 30 (4): 47–56. PMID 258606.
  51. ↑ Landrigan, P.J.; Powell, K.E.; James, L.M.; Taylor, P.R. (1983). "Paraquat and marijuana: epidemiologic risk assessment". American Journal of Public Health. 73 (7): 784–788. doi:10.2105/AJPH.73.7.784. PMC 1650884. PMID 6859364.
  52. ↑ Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2016). "International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 2016, Volume I: Mexico". United States Department of State. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  53. ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2019). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Volume I: Drug and Chemical Control (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  54. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2023). "World Drug Report 2023, Statistical Annex: 6.3.1 Cannabis cultivation, production and eradication". Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  55. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2023). "World Drug Report 2023, Statistical Annex: 7.1 Drug seizures 2017–2021". Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "Occurrence search: Cannabis, Mexico". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  57. ↑ "Occurrence 1320903313: Cannabis sativa L., US 387996". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  58. ↑ "Occurrence 1322672844: Cannabis sativa L., US 399502". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  59. ↑ "Occurrence 731718303: Cannabis sativa L., P06884257". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  60. ↑ "Occurrence 1261051303: Cannabis sativa L., Tropicos 3618473". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
  61. ↑ "Accession G 33385: Cannabis, Mexican True Sativa Herm". GRIN-Global, U.S. National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 14 October 2026.
Retrieved from "https://landrace.wiki/index.php?title=Mexico&oldid=41179"