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Maha Shivaratri

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A sadhu in a saffron head cloth holds a glowing clay pipe to his face with both hands, wreathed in smoke.
A sadhu smoking a chillum at Pashupatinath in Kathmandu on the eve of Maha Shivaratri, 2023.
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Maha Shivaratri (Sanskrit Mahāśivarātri, "the great night of Shiva") is the annual Hindu festival of Shiva, kept with a fast and a night-long vigil of worship of the god's linga. It falls on the 14th night of the dark half of the lunar month of Māgha or Phālguna, in February or March.[1]: 251[2]: 22–23[3]: 239 On this night bhang and ganja are offered to Shiva and consumed by his devotees. The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission found in 1894 that ganja was offered to the god and consumed by certain classes of his worshippers "at the Shivratri festival", and in Nepal the authors of a 2014 survey of sadhus at the Pashupatinath temple in Kathmandu described the festival there as "characterized by open use of cannabis, flaunting of the law, and excessive consumption".[4][5]: 12

Cannabis is illegal in Nepal, and the police and the trust that manages the temple area have in some years tolerated smoking by the visiting sadhus and in others announced a ban on it.[6][7] In India the leaf preparation bhang falls outside the national narcotics law and is sold through state-licensed shops, whose sales rise at the festival.[8][9] Cannabis in Hindu worship more widely is the subject of Cannabis in Hinduism.

The night and its date

Hindu months are reckoned in two ways. In the amānta reckoning of south India, Bengal and Maharashtra a month ends at the new moon; in the pūrṇimānta reckoning of north India it ends at the full moon. The festival falls on the same night everywhere, but its dark fortnight belongs to Māgha in the first reckoning and to Phālguna in the second.[2]: 22–23 The sources on cannabis show both: a Gujarat witness before the commission placed "the Shivratri day" on "the last day but one of the month of Magh", and J. M. Campbell's note for the commission put Shiva's Great Night "on the dark fourteenth of Magh", while Khwaja A. Hasan, writing of a village near Lucknow, placed it on the 14th day of the dark half of Phalgun.[10]: 164[1]: 251[3]: 239

M. M. Underhill, in a 1921 account of the Hindu festival year written for a missionary series, wrote that the night called for a fast through a full lunar day and worship of the linga every third hour of the night with bel leaves, milk, curds, ghee and honey. She retold the legend of a hunter who, by chance, kept the fast and the vigil in a bel tree above a linga and was received into Shiva's heaven. She listed fairs held that night at the twelve great linga temples, among them Mahakala at Ujjain and Vishvanatha at Benares (Varanasi).[2]: 93–94 In the village Hasan studied in 1959–60 the day was held to be that of Shiva's marriage, and people fasted in honour of the god who had swallowed the poison churned from the ocean.[3]: 239–240

Offerings and use in the 1890s

The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission gathered evidence on the festival across British India. In Bengal it found that at Shivaratri ganja was offered to Shiva and consumed by certain classes of his worshippers, customs "so intimately connected with their worship that they may be considered to form in some sense an integral part of it".[4] In the Lower Provinces, by contrast, it counted bhang at "Sivachaturdasi" among festival uses that were "a matter of social custom".[11] In Gujarat, B. E. Modi, a deputy collector, reported that on the day "bhang water is freely poured over the lingam" and that "it is considered a religious duty to offer him his favourite drink".[10]: 164

A memorandum from Berar found that hemp entered no social or religious ceremony there except Mahashivratri, when the devotees of Shiva "bathe the idol of Shiva by the preparation of bhang". The drug was "not considered to be an essential material of worship", though "the god is supposed to be very fond of it".[12] The commission's summary for Berar reported both ganja and bhang at Shivratri and Holi, and for the princely states it found practices at "the Holi and Shivratri festivals" similar to those of the British provinces.[13][10]: 165

Campbell, citing a "Meru Tantra", set the great night at the head of a calendar of bhang offerings to Shiva that also took in every Monday, the dark fourteenth of each month and eclipses.[1]: 251 The offerings at other times of the year are described on the page on Shiva.

In India

A black-and-white photograph of men standing at the doorway of a small shop with a signboard above it, in an arcaded street.
A licensed bhang shop in Varanasi, 1983.

In the village near Lucknow that Hasan studied in 1959–60, hemp drugs were offered to Shiva in the temples on Shivaratri as "foods of the god".[3]: 239 At Varanasi in 2006, excise officials told the United News of India that bhang was consumed as prasad on the festival and that the day's consumption had risen to 500 kg.[14] The next year, ahead of the festival, the state excise department released nearly 5,000 kg of bhang to the 49 licensed shops in the city in one month, against a usual monthly release of 2,400 kg; a seller said that Maha Shivratri and Holi were "the two festivals which all thandhai sellers wait for".[9] A 2022 report on India's bhang shops found that devotion to Shiva includes the consumption of bhang, "reaching its peak during the annual Maha Shivaratri".[15]

At the Mahakaleshwar temple at Ujjain the festival closes a ten-day Shiv Navratri. In 2026 the temple opened the period with a "Bhang and Chandan Shringar", an adornment of the god with bhang and sandalwood paste, and on the morning of Maha Shivaratri, India TV reported, the god was adorned with bhang, called "Vijaya".[16][17]

In the Manikaran valley of Kullu in the western Himalayas, the leaves and seeds of the local hemp are made into the drink ghota and offered to Shiva at Shivaratri. Surveys recorded the custom in 2015–17 and again across the district in 2021–22.[18]: 129[19]: 7

At Pashupatinath

A bearded man in an orange turban and a woollen shawl holds his hands to his mouth as he breathes out smoke.
A devotee of Shiva breathes out cannabis smoke during Maha Shivaratri in Kathmandu, 2017.

Pashupatinath, the temple of Shiva in Kathmandu, draws sadhus from all over Nepal and the neighbouring Indian states for Maha Shivaratri.[5]: 11 In the early 1970s the anthropologist James Fisher saw pilgrims from India give cannabis to the sadhus there as prasad.[20]: 252 In 2018 the executive director of the Pashupati Area Development Trust, which manages the temple area, said that the trust had given the visiting sadhus cannabis confiscated by the Home Ministry until 1995, when the practice was ended at the instruction of King Birendra.[21] The Post reported in 2019 that the trust stopped after sadhus began distributing and selling it to visitors.[6]

The sadhus' own smoking has been allowed in most years, and selling to visitors has not. In 2011 a trust official said that "the holy men are free to use the drugs for themselves" but could not sell them, and seven sadhus were arrested for selling.[22] In 2012 the police detained 40 people, sadhus among them, for trading cannabis, and said that the amounts were too small for the drug law, so that charges would be brought under the Public Offence Act.[23] The next year officials said that sadhus "would be permitted to smoke marijuana in the honor of Lord Shiva" but that those selling it to devotees "on the pretext of offering prasad" would be arrested; the trust had installed CCTV cameras and set aside separate quarters for the sadhus.[24] Police arrested 85 people at the temple during that festival.[25]

In January 2018 the trust declared the Pashupati area a marijuana-free zone.[6] Its executive director said that the sadhus would be exempt but visitors arrested for smoking or possession, and a police officer said they would take "a stringent measure against use, sale and possession of marijuana on the day of the festival as well".[21] On the day the Kathmandu Post reported 52 arrests in the temple area for smoking cannabis and disorderly conduct, among about 3,500 visiting sadhus.[26] In 2019 the police announced a ban on consumption in the temple area but said they would let sadhus smoke in their ashrams.[27] In 2020 the trust announced "a complete restriction" with no exemption for sadhus.[7] On the festival day sadhus and visitors smoked openly, and a police officer told the Associated Press: "There is a ban on smoking marijuana but at the same time it is a centuries-old tradition, which we have to respect"; no arrests were made that day.[28] In 2026 Euronews reported that police "allow limited use during the festival".[29]

Of the 200 sadhus surveyed at the 2014 festival, 90 per cent used cannabis daily, most often for meditation, and about a third gave it to devotees as prasad. The authors, writing from a public-health standpoint, judged that the festival was "characterized by open use of cannabis, flaunting of the law, and excessive consumption, condoned and even encouraged by many Sadhus".[5]: 11–12

Law

Nepal revoked all licences to grow, buy and sell cannabis on 16 July 1973.[20]: 253 The Narcotic Drugs (Control) Act of 1976 prohibits the cultivation, sale, possession and consumption of cannabis, and punishes consumption with up to one month in prison or a fine of up to 2,000 rupees.[30][6] Agence France-Presse wrote in 2011 that the authorities allowed sadhus to smoke at the festival "under an ancient legal loophole"; in practice the arrangement has been set by announcements of the trust and the police.[22][6] Studies of cannabis in Nepal in 2014 and 2021 found its use tolerated "without sanction during festivals such as Shivaratri".[5]: 10[31]: 956 A private member's bill to regulate the cultivation of cannabis, registered in the House of Representatives on 2 March 2020, framed the case in terms of medicine and export.[31]: 956[32]

In India the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 defines ganja as the flowering or fruiting tops of the plant, "excluding the seeds and leaves when not accompanied by the tops".[8] Bhang made from the leaves is regulated by the states: the bhang shops of Varanasi are licensed by the state excise department, which supplied the extra stock for the festival.[9] In 2022 the High Court of Karnataka granted bail to a man held with bhang, holding that the Act nowhere refers to bhang as a prohibited drink or drug.[33] Ganja is prohibited under the Act, and in 2023 the government of Odisha ordered that it be used in no Shiva temple in the state.[34]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Campbell, J.M. (1894). "Note on the religion of hemp". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–1894. Vol. III. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. Appendix.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Underhill, M. M. (1921). The Hindu Religious Year. The Religious Life of India. Calcutta: Association Press (Y.M.C.A.); Oxford University Press.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Hasan, Khwaja A. (1975). "Social aspects of the use of cannabis in India". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 235–246. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.235.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. IX, "Social and religious customs", para. 435, pp. 160–161 – via Internet Archive.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Acharya, S.L.; Howard, J.; Pant, S.B.; Mahatma, S.S.; Copeland, J. (2014). "Cannabis, Lord Shiva and holy men: cannabis use among sadhus in Nepal". Journal of Psychiatrists' Association of Nepal. 3 (2): 9–14. doi:10.3126/jpan.v3i2.12379.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Ojha, Anup (3 March 2019). "State-announced ban on marijuana ineffective". The Kathmandu Post. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Security stepped up for Mahashivaratri". The Kathmandu Post. 19 February 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985(Act No. 61 of 1985), 1985, section 2(iii).India.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "'Bhang' consumption doubles on Maha Shivratri". Oneindia. United News of India. 16 February 2007. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. IX, "Social and religious customs", paras. 431–450, pp. 159–166 – via Internet Archive.
  11. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. IX, "Social and religious customs", para. 434, p. 160 – via Internet Archive.
  12. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). "Memorandum on hemp drugs in Berar". Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. III: Appendices, Miscellaneous. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. pp. 107–109 – via Internet Archive.
  13. ↑ Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (1894). Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94. Vol. I: Report. Simla: Government Central Printing Office. ch. IX, "Social and religious customs", para. 445, p. 165 – via Internet Archive.
  14. ↑ "City of Shiva, Varanasi plunges into 'Bhang' on Shivratri". Oneindia. United News of India. 26 February 2006. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  15. ↑ Khan, Arman (17 March 2022). "Where do Indian Bhang Shops Get Their Legal Cannabis From?". VICE. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  16. ↑ Digital Desk (31 January 2026). "Mahakal Temple to Observe 10-Day Shiv Navratri from February 6 to 15; Daily Divine Adornments Planned". Dainik Jagran (Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh). Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  17. ↑ "'Bam bam Bhole' echoes across India as devotees throng temples on Mahashivratri". India TV. 15 February 2026. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  18. ↑ Rathore, S.; Shashni, S.; Samant, S.S.; Sundriyal, R.C. (2018). "Indigenous uses of wild hemp (Cannabis sativa) by the local inhabitants in Manikaran Valley of Himachal Pradesh, North Western Himalaya". Journal of Non-Timber Forest Products. 25 (3): 127–130. doi:10.54207/bsmps2000-2018-7393KF.
  19. ↑ Thakur, Smriti; Jamwal, Radhika; Negi, Subodh (2023). "Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in magico-religious practices in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh, India". Ethnobotany Research and Applications. 25: 1–18. doi:10.32859/era.25.39.1-18.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Fisher, James F. (1975). "Cannabis in Nepal: an overview". In Rubin, Vera (ed.). Cannabis and Culture. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 247–256. doi:10.1515/9783110812060.247.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Ojha, Anup (11 February 2018). "Police to arrest cannabis users at Pashupati this Mahashivaratri festival". The Kathmandu Post. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Cannabis Ban Snuffs Out Celebration for Nepal's Most Holy". Medindia. Agence France-Presse. 5 March 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  23. ↑ "Marijuana keeps police, sadhus busy". Republica. 19 February 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  24. ↑ "Shivaratri yes, ganja no". Republica. 9 March 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  25. ↑ "Dozens arrested over cannabis use during Hindu festival". Sowetan Live. Agence France-Presse. 11 March 2013. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  26. ↑ "700k visit Pashupati on Mahashivaratri". The Kathmandu Post. 14 February 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  27. ↑ Dawadi, Biken K. (4 March 2019). "Police to enforce ban on cannabis use on Mahashivaratri". Republica. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  28. ↑ "Thousands light up joints during Hindu festival in Nepal". Yahoo News. Associated Press. 21 February 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  29. ↑ Caraco, Alexis (15 February 2026). "Nepal: Watch cannabis rituals unfold during Shivaratri in Kathmandu". Euronews. Associated Press. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  30. ↑ "लागू औषध (नियन्त्रण) ऐन, २०३३" [Narcotic Drugs (Control) Act, 2033] (PDF) (in नेपाली). Nepal Law Commission. Retrieved 30 September 2026 – via Kathmandu Metropolitan City.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Shakya, Dhana Ratna; Upadhaya, Sandesh Raj; Thapa, Milan (2021). "Cannabis use and abuse in Nepal: a review of studies". Journal of Nepal Medical Association. 59 (241): 954–962. doi:10.31729/jnma.6931.
  32. ↑ "Bill seeking legalisation of cultivation and consumption of medical marijuana registered in Parliament". The Kathmandu Post. 3 March 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
  33. ↑ Roshan Kumar Mishra v. State of Karnataka. High Court of Karnataka (26 August 2022). Criminal Petition No. 6611 of 2022.
  34. ↑ "Odisha: Government bans consumption of Ganja at Shiva shrines". Free Press Journal. Press Trust of India. 24 May 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2026.
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