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Panama

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Panama
Panamá
Cloud around Volcán Barú, Chiriquí
Cloud around Volcán Barú, Chiriquí
Capital Panama City
Continent North America
Subregion Central America
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Illegal (licensed medical and therapeutic use)
Status Since 2021
Enforcement Possession for one's own use punished by day-fines, weekend arrest or community work; growing for sale 10–15 years
Documentation
Growing Regions 0
Growing Areas 0
Accessions 3


Panama is a country on the isthmus between Central America and South America. Its first drug law, of 1923, prohibited the growing, use and sale of "la hierba Kan-Jac (Canabis índica)", and a law of 1954 named the plant "Can-Yac" and set five to ten years in the Coiba penal colony for growing it.[1][2] In the Panama Canal Zone, then under United States administration, committees of Canal Zone and military officials reported in 1925 and 1932 that marihuana as grown there was not habit-forming in the way opium and cocaine were, and advised against legislation; the Canal Zone still had no marihuana law in 1941.[3][4]: 1–2 Ley 242 of 2021 permits cannabis only for medical, veterinary, therapeutic, scientific and research purposes, under licences that only companies may hold, and its regulation of 2025 limits licensees to importing and selling finished products for their first two years.[5]: arts. 2, 14[6]: art. 40 According to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), the authorities seized 138.4 tonnes of drugs in 2022, mostly cocaine, followed by 29.5 tonnes of cannabis herb.[7]: 75

Geography

The United States State Department reported in 2004 that cannabis was grown in small quantities for local consumption, particularly in the Perlas Islands (the Pearl Islands), and that the maritime and air services and the national police worked together to eradicate the crop; its report of 2007 again named the Pearl Islands.[8][9] In the Canal Zone, the committee of 1931–1932 found cannabis grown on a small scale by farmers along the Chiva-Chiva Trail, on the Pacific side of the canal: some grew a few plants for their own use, and others had more than their families needed and sold the surplus to soldiers.[3] The law of 1954 ordered the health department, with the Guardia Nacional, to destroy all plantations of "Cannabis Indica o Can-Yac" anywhere in the Republic where the plant was grown or grew wild.[2]: art. 2 Herbarium specimens have been collected in the Canal Zone in 1925 and above El Cantinero, near Boquete in Chiriquí, at 1,100 metres in 1975.[10][11] Under the law of 2021 licensed cannabis may be grown only in a controlled environment and not on land in protected areas.[5]: arts. 34, 40

Demographics

Communities with cannabis relationships

The Canal Zone committee of 1931–1932 wrote about two groups of users: the soldiers of the United States garrison and the farmers who supplied them. It reported that the plant was steeped as a tea, and that "among the colored people" there was, in its words, "great faith in the efficacy of this drink as a mild stimulant which gives a feeling of well being", and in its power to prevent malaria; smoking the dried leaves and flower heads as cigarettes also seemed to it "not uncommon". As far as the committee could tell, the workers who built the canal had not smoked it, and police files showed no case of intoxication from that time. The police first heard of it about 1916, when soldiers of what the report calls the Porto Rican Regiment were said to be smoking a "weed", and the committee judged use by civilians in the Canal Zone "so slight as to be negligible".[3] Nine years later a committee of the United States House of Representatives, drawing on the report of the Governor of the Panama Canal, wrote of "groups of young men from the Republic of Panama" who gathered in the Canal Zone to smoke marihuana cigarettes, which it called objectionable, and of marihuana cigarettes peddled around labour camps and piers.[4]: 2

Agriculture

The State Department's reports of 2004, 2007 and 2012 call cannabis cultivation in Panama limited and mainly for domestic consumption.[8][9][12] Under the law of 2021, the Ministry of Agricultural Development authorises the use of seed and the cultivation of plants, and only for holders of a licence to manufacture medicinal cannabis derivatives; the regulation of 2025 keeps the rule that every manufacturing licensee must obtain a cultivation authorisation from that ministry.[5]: arts. 6, 31[6]: art. 60 In 2023 the Ministry of Health told applicants that licensees must carry out every activity in Panama, from cultivation to sale.[13]: 4

Cannabis in Panama

Panamanian statutes have named the plant in three forms. The law of 1923 calls it "la hierba Kan-Jac (Canabis índica)", the herb Kan-Jac;[1]: art. 3 in the law of 1954 it is the herb native to India called Cannabis indica, commonly known in the Americas by the name "Can-Yac";[2]: art. 1 and the drug law of 1986, "canyac o marihuana".[14]: art. 18 The Canal Zone committee of 1931–1932 used the spelling "mariajuana", which it called a provincialism common to Panama, derived from "maraguango": in its account, a general word for smoking, drinking or snuffing any substance that clouds the mind or disturbs sleep.[3]

History

The first laws, 1923–1954

Ley 19 of 1923, which regulated the import of opium, cocaine and similar substances, prohibited in its third article the cultivation, use and sale of Kan-Jac and similar plants. Offenders faced the penalty of its first article, one to two years of arrest that could not be commuted.[1]: arts. 1, 3 Ley 64 of 1928 repealed the third article.[15]

Ley 23 of 1954 punished anyone who sowed or cultivated Can-Yac, or illicitly produced the drugs it regulated, with five to ten years in the penal colony of Coiba. Supplying them by sale, gift or any other means without a prescription from a licensed physician or surgeon carried five to eight years there. The law gave the health department ninety days to destroy, with the Guardia Nacional, every plantation of the plant in the Republic.[2]: arts. 1–3

The Canal Zone, 1922–1941

A committee of Canal Zone health officials and Army and Navy medical officers reported on marihuana in the Canal Zone on 21 October 1932, in a report signed at Balboa Heights by J.F. Siler, the Chief Health Officer, and five others and printed in The Military Surgeon in 1933.[3] It traces the military measures from May 1922, when the Provost Marshal at Quarry Heights asked the Board of Health Laboratory what the drug was. Circular No. 5 of the headquarters of the Panama Canal Department, dated 20 January 1923, prohibited its possession. On 1 April 1925 the Governor appointed a committee to investigate its use and to recommend how to prevent it, with special legislation if that seemed necessary. After hearings and observation from April to December 1925, the committee found "no evidence that mariahuana as grown here is a 'habit-forming' drug in the sense in which the term is applied to alcohol, opium, cocaine, etc., or that it has any appreciably deleterious influence on the individuals using it". It recommended that the Canal Zone authorities take no steps to prevent its sale or use and ask for no special legislation, and the circular was rescinded on 29 January 1926.[3]

According to the 1932 report, most Army officers commanding troops did not accept these findings and held that the drug was habit-forming and undermined military morale. A year's study ordered in 1928 led the Department Surgeon to report in June 1929 that use was not widespread and did little harm to discipline, but on 1 December 1930 the Department Commander forbade soldiers to smoke it, on pain of trial for each offence. In June 1931 the committee was convened again, at the commanding general's request, to gather evidence that might support regulations against the cultivation, possession or sale of the plant in the Canal Zone. Between December 1931 and October 1932 it observed at Gorgas Hospital 34 soldiers who smoked marihuana grown at the Canal Zone Experiment Gardens, and found the drug, as grown and used on the isthmus, "a mild stimulant and intoxicant", with no symptoms on withdrawal. Post surgeons' estimates of the share of each command who were habitual users ran from 0.6 per cent at Fort Amador to 20 per cent at Fort Clayton. In the two years to June 1932, possession or use of the drug figured among the charges against 51 soldiers tried by court martial, 4 of them with violence or insubordination.[3]

The committee classed 85 per cent of the 34 soldiers as mentally abnormal, in the clinical terms of its day "constitutional psychopaths" and "morons", and held that commanders had "unduly emphasized the effects of mariajuana, disregarding the fact that a large proportion of the delinquents are morons or psychopaths". It recommended that the ban on military reservations stay in force and that no further legislation be sought.[3] H.B.M. Murphy quoted its conclusions in a review for the United Nations Bulletin on Narcotics in 1963, observing that the inquiry reported no psychosis over a year among what he estimated at about 500 users,[16] and Ernest L. Abel returned to the report in 1982.[17]

In December 1941 the War Department sent Congress a bill to add an article on marihuana to the Canal Zone Code, drafted at the request of the commanding general of the Panama Canal Department. The report of the House committee said that the Canal Zone had no marihuana law, that the military authorities now held its use "materially detrimental to morale" and a cause of delinquency, and that the Republic of Panama prohibited its possession, cultivation and use. Under the bill it would be unlawful to produce, possess, sell, give away, transport, import or export marihuana in the Canal Zone except under licence, and a first offence would carry a fine of up to $100 or up to 30 days in jail.[4]: 1–4

Treaties and the drug laws since 1961

Panama signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs on 30 March 1961 and ratified it on 4 December 1963. It acceded to the Convention on Psychotropic Substances on 18 February 1972, ratified the protocol amending the Single Convention on 19 October 1972 and ratified the 1988 convention against illicit traffic on 13 January 1994.[18][19][20][21]

Ley 23 of 1986 rewrote the drug offences of the Penal Code in terms of "drogas": making, transforming, cultivating or extracting drugs for illicit ends carried five to ten years, and illicit possession one to three years and a fine. Its bail article set bail for possession and use of "canyac o marihuana" at no less than B/.500.[14]: arts. 3, 5, 18 The Penal Code of 2007 kept the same approach (see Legal status).[22]

The bill that became Ley 242, Proyecto 153 of 2019, passed its third debate in the National Assembly on 30 August 2021. President Laurentino Cortizo signed it on 13 October 2021, and it was published in the Gaceta Oficial on 15 October and took effect the next day.[5]: art. 83[23] The INCB reported that the national authorities began to implement it in 2023.[7]: 74

Executive Decree 121 of 1 September 2022 was the law's first regulation. It allowed cultivation only by sowing in a controlled environment, under an authorisation from the Ministry of Agricultural Development held by a manufacturing licensee; it let licensees import seed and plants only for their first planting; and it required patients to register with a certificate from a Panamanian physician, while barring them from growing the plant even for medical use. Executive Decree 85 of the same day created, in the Ministry of Public Security, a national directorate to monitor activities connected with medicinal cannabis, staffed by units of the National Police, the National Aeronaval Service and the National Border Service, which approves the security protocols of licence applicants.[24]: arts. 19–20, 73, 178[25]: arts. 1–3 In February 2025 TVN reported, after an interview with the ministry's director of pharmacy and drugs, that two articles of the decree contradicted the law: the decree required applicants to meet good manufacturing practice before they could operate, while article 24 of the law gives companies two years in which to import finished products for registered patients.[26] Executive Decree 6 of 4 April 2025 repealed Decree 121 and replaced it.[6]: art. 158

Cultivation

The Canal Zone committee of 1931–1932 reported that local growers paid little attention to removing the male plants before they shed pollen and often mixed their leaves with the female flowers, although male plants were generally understood to be much less potent; marihuana bought locally was therefore of variable strength.[3] The law of 2021 allows only licensed cultivation for medical, therapeutic and scientific purposes: it amended the Sanitary Code so that the sowing, cultivation and harvest of cannabis are authorised for those purposes alone, and it requires the crop to be grown in a controlled environment.[5]: arts. 40, 73

Preparations and consumption

Citing the Organization of American States' report on drug use of 2019, the State Department wrote in 2021 that Panama had the third lowest rate of marijuana consumption of 15 Central and South American countries studied.[27]: 198 The law of 2021 defines medicinal cannabis as preparations or active principles of Cannabis sativa (the cannabinoids) for therapeutic use, made to quality controls and a standardised production. It has the Ministry of Health keep a register of patients who use cannabis and its derivatives, and it forbids the sale of medicinal cannabis derivatives at the buyer's home or over the internet.[5]: arts. 4, 7, 28 In May 2026 the ministry approved the forms for registering users of medicinal cannabis and their authorised companions and for the medical certificate.[28]

Trade and commerce

According to the State Department, about 78 per cent of the drugs seized in Panama by weight in 2020 were cocaine or cocaine base and the rest marijuana,[27]: 198 and in the first nine months of 2024, when more than 70 tonnes were seized, cocaine made up about 70 per cent and marijuana the remainder.[29]: 290

The law of 2021 provides two licences, one to manufacture medicinal cannabis derivatives and one for scientific research. A manufacturing licence runs for ten years, renewable for a further ten, and costs a one-off, non-refundable B/.150,000; no more than seven may be granted in the law's first five years. To supply patients in the meantime, licensees may import derivatives for two years from the approval of their licence, and the export of seeds, plants, cannabis and derivatives is permitted.[5]: arts. 14, 19, 21, 24, 59, 61 In July 2023 the Ministry of Health announced that no cannabis-derived product was yet authorised for distribution or sale while it selected the licensees.[30] Fourteen consortia applied after the call of May and June 2023, and on 17 January 2024 the ministry found seven of the proposals compliant: Consorcio Panamericana de Cannabis, Green Med, Tilray Panamá, Farma Verde Corp., Canna Med Panamá, Consorcio Adeiwa Pharma and Consorcio Ecovida.[31]: 1–2

The regulation of 2025 requires an applicant for a manufacturing licence to hold a licence to operate a pharmaceutical laboratory first. For its first two years a licensee may only import and sell finished products, while it equips itself to manufacture in Panama, and the cap of seven manufacturing licences holds until five years after the law. Licensees sell through licensed pharmacies, or in their own specialised premises once these have a pharmacy licence. Products of cannabidiol (CBD) with less than 1 per cent tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are outside the regime for controlled medicines, on the decree's reasoning that the INCB does not regulate them.[6]: arts. 9–10, 38, 40–41 In April 2025 La Estrella de Panamá reported that no manufacturing or research licence had yet been issued.[32] In October 2025 the ministry published a new official list of the controlled substances permitted in Panama for medical and scientific use, which includes cannabis and THC.[33]: 2 In January 2026 the director of pharmacy and drugs told TVN that seven licences to sell cannabis products had been granted and that everything sold was imported; TVN reported the opening that month of a pharmacy devoted to medicinal cannabis, the first in the country.[34] In October 2026 the ministry's register of cannabis products held one entry, dated the same day: CBD products of the establishment Cannapharma, made by Hemp Depot of the United States.[35]

Ley 242 of 2021 regulates the import, export, cultivation, production, manufacture, laboratory analysis, storage, transport, sale, distribution and disposal of cannabis seed and of medicinal cannabis derivatives for medical, veterinary, therapeutic, scientific and research purposes.[5]: art. 2 Its licences may be granted only to legal persons.[5]: art. 14 It forbids the use of cannabis for any other purpose, and any use or handling it does not provide for is punished under the Penal Code; conduct arising from lawful medical, therapeutic or scientific activity is not a crime.[5]: arts. 64, 72, 79 Its regulation of 2025 does not allow patients to use medicinal cannabis in any public place, to drive under its influence or to grow it, even for medical use, and it does not authorise possessing, growing, transporting, giving or selling cannabis for recreational purposes; breaches are classed as very serious infractions (faltas gravísimas).[6]: art. 157

Under the Penal Code, sowing, cultivating, keeping or guarding seeds or plants from which an illicit drug can be produced, for sale, carries ten to fifteen years in prison. Possessing drugs in circumstances that show they are not for one's own consumption carries eight to twelve years. Buying or possessing a small quantity for one's own consumption is punished by 50 to 250 day-fines, weekend arrest or community work; what counts as a small quantity is determined in each case by the Instituto de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses, according to the person's state of dependence.[22]: arts. 314, 320, 321

Enforcement

The State Department reported seizures of 1.44 tonnes of cannabis in 2003, over four tonnes of marijuana in 2006 and 4.9 tonnes of cannabis in 2011.[8][9][12] The INCB reported 12.9 tonnes of cannabis seized in 2019 and 16.1 tonnes in 2020,[36]: 73 and 29.5 tonnes of cannabis herb in 2022.[7]: 75 The Ministry of Public Security's statistics show 33.61 tonnes of marijuana seized in 2023.[37] In 2020 the National Aeronaval Service seized 10.6 tonnes of marijuana and the National Police another 3.3 tonnes.[27]: 198

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki: No growing regions documented yet.

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki: No growing areas documented yet.

Accessions

Accession IDNamePriorityCollectedArea
CBG-PAN-UNK-0120120001Panama Pelo Rosa 2012
HCG-PAN-UNK-01202300011971 Panama Red 2023
VIB-PAN-UNK-0100000001Panama Red 1974 General Population

Conservation status

Three herbarium specimens of Cannabis sativa from Panama are known: one collected by A. Lepart in the Canal Zone on 25 May 1925, at the United States National Herbarium; one collected by William G. D'Arcy above El Cantinero, near Boquete, on 21 November 1975, at the Missouri Botanical Garden; and an undated sheet from Canta Gallo at Meise Botanic Garden.[10][11][38]

The University of Mississippi sowed seed from Panama, among other countries, in its first experimental cannabis plot in 1968,[39] and its chemists later described compounds from a "Panamanian variant" grown in Mississippi.[40] The United States National Plant Germplasm System received a line called Panama Red, G 34084, in April 2026, as a gift from a personal collection, donated from Ontario County, New York. The genebank's entry says the line was developed in Panama, by an anonymous developer; it classes the line as a landrace on limited passport information, and the line is not available for distribution.[41] Other seed lines named for Panama are kept or sold by the Vibes Collective, Hippie Cannabis Genetics and Cannabiogen.[42][43][44]

Recent news

No recent news items.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Ley 19 de 1923, por el cual se reglamenta la introducción del opio, la cocaína y sus similares y se castiga el uso de dichas sustancias(Ley No. 19), 3 April 1923, Gaceta Oficial No. 4165, 7 June 1923, p. 13411.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Ley 23 de 1954, por medio de la cual se reglamenta la importación, manejo y uso de las drogas enervantes, estupefacientes o narcóticos y productos de patente que las contengan, y se disponen sanciones para los infractores de las mismas(Ley No. 23), 16 February 1954, Gaceta Oficial No. 12306, 26 February 1954, p. 4.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Siler, J.F.; Sheep, W.L.; Cook, G.W.; Smith, W.A.; Bates, L.B.; Clark, G.F. (1933). "Mariajuana smoking in Panama". The Military Surgeon. 73: 269–280. Retrieved 13 October 2026 – via Schaffer Library of Drug Policy (transcription).
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 United States House of Representatives, Committee on the Merchant Marine and Fisheries (19 December 1941). Controlling marihuana in the Canal Zone (PDF) (House Report No. 1552, 77th Congress, 1st Session). Retrieved 13 October 2026 – via govinfo.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 Ley 242 de 13 de octubre de 2021, que regula el uso medicinal y terapéutico del cannabis y sus derivados y dicta otras disposiciones(Ley No. 242), 13 October 2021, Gaceta Oficial Digital No. 29398-B, 15 October 2021.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Decreto Ejecutivo N° 6 de 4 de abril de 2025, que reglamenta la Ley No. 242 de 13 de octubre de 2021, que regula el uso medicinal y terapéutico del cannabis y sus derivados y dicta otras disposiciones(Decreto Ejecutivo No. 6), 4 April 2025, Gaceta Oficial Digital No. 30251-B, 4 April 2025.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 International Narcotics Control Board (2024). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2023 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-003052-6. E/INCB/2023/1.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2004). "Canada, Mexico, and Central America: Panama". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2003 (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2007). "Canada, Mexico, and Central America: Panama". International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 2007 (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Occurrence 1320848485: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Occurrence 1258516893: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (2012). "Panama". 2012 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), Volume I: Drug and Chemical Control (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  13. ↑ Ministerio de Salud, Dirección Nacional de Farmacia y Drogas (27 June 2023). "Respuestas a consultas sobre las "Bases para la selección de las empresas interesadas en obtener la asignación de la licencia de fabricación de derivados del cannabis medicinal"" (PDF) (in español). Ministerio de Salud de Panamá. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Ley 23 de 1986, por la cual se reforman algunos artículos del Código Penal y del Código Judicial y se adoptan otras disposiciones especiales sobre delitos relacionados con drogas para su prevención y rehabilitación(Ley No. 23), 30 December 1986, Gaceta Oficial No. 20710, 30 December 1986.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  15. ↑ Ley 64 de 1928, por la cual se adicionan y reforman los artículos 1° y 4° y se derogan los artículos 3°, 6° y 7° de la Ley 19 de 1923(Ley No. 64), 17 December 1928, Gaceta Oficial No. 5421, 22 December 1928.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  16. ↑ Murphy, H.B.M. (1963). "The cannabis habit: a review of recent psychiatric literature". Bulletin on Narcotics (1). United Nations: 15–24.
  17. ↑ Abel, E.L. (1982). "Marijuana on trial: the Panama Canal Zone report". International Journal of the Addictions. 17 (4): 667–678. doi:10.3109/10826088209053010. PMID 7049968.
  18. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  19. ↑ "Convention on Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 16. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  20. ↑ "Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 17. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  21. ↑ "United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 19. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Órgano Judicial de la República de Panamá (December 2020). Código Penal de la República de Panamá (actualizado al mes de diciembre de 2020) (PDF) (in español). Panamá: Órgano Judicial. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  23. ↑ "A partir de hoy empieza a regir el uso medicinal y terapéutico del cannabis en Panamá". Panamá América (in español). 17 October 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  24. ↑ Decreto Ejecutivo N° 121 de 1 de septiembre de 2022, que reglamenta la Ley 242 de 13 de octubre de 2021, que regula el uso medicinal y terapéutico del cannabis y sus derivados y dicta otras disposiciones(Decreto Ejecutivo No. 121), 1 September 2022, Gaceta Oficial Digital No. 29612-A, 1 September 2022.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  25. ↑ Decreto Ejecutivo N° 85 de 1 de septiembre de 2022, que crea la Dirección Nacional para el Monitoreo de las Actividades Relacionadas con el Cannabis Medicinal, adscrita al Ministerio de Seguridad Pública, y reglamenta los artículos 18, 22, 31, 32 y 47 de la Ley 242 de 13 de octubre de 2021(Decreto Ejecutivo No. 85), 1 September 2022, Gaceta Oficial Digital No. 29612-A, 1 September 2022.Panama.Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  26. ↑ Marquínez, Arellys (26 February 2025). "Cannabis medicinal: Minsa realiza los ajustes finales para su implementación". TVN Noticias (in español). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2021). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Volume I: Drug and Chemical Control (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  28. ↑ "Resolución N° 0406 de 12 de mayo de 2026, que aprueba el formulario de usuarios de cannabis medicinal y acompañantes autorizados, la certificación médica para el uso del cannabis medicinal y sus anexos" (PDF). Gaceta Oficial Digital (in español) (30536-A). 1 June 2026. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  29. ↑ Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (March 2025). International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Volume 1: Drug and Chemical Control (PDF) (Report). United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  30. ↑ Ministerio de Salud, Dirección Nacional de Farmacia y Drogas (21 July 2023). "Comunicado N° 035-2023/DNFD" (PDF) (Press release) (in español). Ministerio de Salud de Panamá. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  31. ↑ Ministerio de Salud (29 January 2024). "Resolución N° 031 de 29 de enero de 2024" (PDF) (in español). Ministerio de Salud de Panamá. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  32. ↑ Berna, Adriana (7 April 2025). "Cannabis medicinal en Panamá: nuevas restricciones para pacientes y establecimientos". La Estrella de Panamá (in español). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  33. ↑ "Resolución que establece el Listado Oficial de las Sustancias Controladas que estarán permitidas en el territorio nacional para uso médico y científico" (PDF). Gaceta Oficial Digital (in español) (30388-A). 16 October 2025. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  34. ↑ De La Cruz, Omar (22 January 2026). "Panamá abre primera farmacia de cannabis medicinal; Minsa ha otorgado siete licencias de comercialización". TVN Noticias (in español). Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  35. ↑ Ministerio de Salud, Dirección Nacional de Farmacia y Drogas. "Cannabis medicinal" (in español). Ministerio de Salud de Panamá. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  36. ↑ International Narcotics Control Board (2022). Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2021 (PDF) (Report). Vienna: United Nations. ISBN 978-92-1-148367-3. E/INCB/2021/1. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  37. ↑ Sistema Nacional Integrado de Estadísticas Criminales (2024). Resumen ejecutivo de drogas: informe preliminar de las estadísticas de incautaciones de drogas, enero–diciembre del 2023 (PDF) (Report) (in español). Panamá: Ministerio de Seguridad Pública. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  38. ↑ "Occurrence 2243251232: Cannabis sativa L." GBIF. Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  39. ↑ "History". Marijuana Research. School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi. Archived from the original on 24 January 2026. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
  40. ↑ ElSohly, H.N.; Ma, G.-E.; Turner, C.E.; ElSohly, M.A. (May 1984). "Constituents of Cannabis sativa, XXV. Isolation of two new dihydrostilbenes from a Panamanian variant". Journal of Natural Products. 47 (3): 445–452. doi:10.1021/np50033a008. PMID 6481358.
  41. ↑ "G 34084, Cannabis sativa L., Panama Red". GRIN-Global. USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. Retrieved 13 October 2026.
  42. ↑ "Panama Red 1974". Vibes Collective Strainguide. Archived from the original on 29 January 2008. Retrieved 18 September 2026.
  43. ↑ "1971 Panama Red". SeedFinder. Retrieved 8 October 2026.
  44. ↑ "PANAMA PELO ROSA S1 Fem x5". Cannabiogen (in español). Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2026.
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