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Italy

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Italy
Italia
Hemp lifted from a retting pit: a wall painting by Guercino, 1615–1617, Cento
Hemp lifted from a retting pit: a wall painting by Guercino, 1615–1617, Cento
Capital Rome
Continent Europe
Subregion Southern Europe
Cannabis Status
Legal Status Possession for personal use decriminalised (administrative sanctions); cultivation and supply criminal; industrial hemp and medical cannabis licensed
Status Since 1993
Enforcement Cultivation and supply prosecuted; personal possession met by administrative sanctions; hemp flower sales banned since 2025
Documentation
Growing Regions 0
Growing Areas 0
Accessions 0
Conservation
Populations none documented yet


Italy is a country in Southern Europe. At the end of the 19th century it was the world's second producer and exporter of hemp, after the Russian Empire.[1]: 103 Growing for industry was concentrated in the country around Carmagnola near Turin, in Emilia-Romagna and in the province of Caserta, while elsewhere hemp was grown for the household.[2]: 154 The crop then shrank from 85,000 hectares in 1936–39 to 16,000 in 1958[3] and 270 hectares in 1973.[4]

Cannabis is controlled under the consolidated drug law of 1990, which places cannabis and the products obtained from it in the second of its schedules.[5] Since a referendum of 1993, buying or holding drugs for personal use is punished by administrative sanctions, not by the criminal law.[6][7] A law of 2016 allows industrial hemp of registered varieties to be grown without authorisation. A decree-law of April 2025 banned trade in the plant's flowers. A court has since referred the ban to the Constitutional Court.[8][9]

Geography

In Emilia hemp grew on the alluvial soils of the Po plain. A consular report of 1915, printed by the United States Department of Agriculture, placed Bologna hemp "on the rich alluvial soils of the lower Po Valley, in the Provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, Modena, Emilia, and Rovigo".[10]: 32 The department's fibre botanist, Lyster H. Dewey, named Bologna, Ferrara, Rovigo and Modena in 1913.[11] Processing was centred on the Ferrara and Bologna countryside. Parts of Romagna around Ravenna and Cesena also grew the crop.[12]: 149

West of Emilia, hemp for the market was grown on the plain between Turin and Cuneo in Piedmont from the 18th century, with the town of Carmagnola as the centre of rope-making.[1]: 100 The 1915 report placed Carmagnola hemp "in the Provinces of Turin and Cuneo between Carmagnola and the Po".[10]: 31

In Campania the crop occupied the plain north of Naples. The Agro aversano and other parts of the Neapolitan plain suited it because of the Regi Lagni, a system of drainage canals begun by the Spanish viceroys and finished under the Bourbons. The geographer Ruocco, writing in 1957, divided the plain into two tracts on either side of the canals. Between Afragola, Caivano and Frignano, south of the Regi Lagni, growers produced the hemp called paesana; between Caserta, Marcianise and San Tammaro, to the north, they produced a lesser fibre called forestiera.[13]: 161–162

Smaller hemp districts lay in the Biellese in Piedmont, where statutes of 1245 already priced woven cloth and named hemp before wool,[14]: 140 and around Ascoli Piceno in the Marche.[15]

Agriculture

Hemp was grown in Italy for its fibre. Seed was kept for sowing; the seed of Carmagnola was sold abroad for the purpose.[16] In the five years before the First World War, 1909–1913, the crop covered an average of 80,902 hectares and yielded 835,000 quintals of fibre a year. The Enciclopedia Italiana of 1930 ranked Italy second in the world for the quantity of fibre and first for its quality and for yield, at about 10 quintals of fibre per hectare.[16] At the end of the 19th century Emilia-Romagna produced 390,000 quintals, 53.3 per cent of the national crop, followed by Campania, Veneto and Piedmont.[12]: 149

Italy grew about a sixth of the world's hemp area in 1950 (56,000 hectares) and almost a third of its fibre, 664,000 of 2,040,000 quintals, according to the Enciclopedia agraria italiana of 1954 as cited by Davide Cacchioni.[1]: 96 Between 1959 and 1973 the area fell from 17,000 hectares to 270; production in 1973 was 300 tonnes.[4] By 1991 Italian production had ceased entirely and Italy was the largest importer of hemp.[17]

Growing was revived from the late 1990s. A circular of the agriculture ministry of 2 December 1997 allowed hemp to be sown again for textiles and paper. In 2007 about 400 hectares were grown, just over three per cent of the hemp area of the European Union.[2]: 154 From the second half of the 1990s the European Community paid growers to reintroduce the crop. The agriculture ministry funded research to bring the Italian varieties into line with European rules.[18]

Cannabis in Italy

History

Roman agronomy

Pliny the Elder called hemp "remarkably useful for making ropes" (in the translation of John Bostock and H. T. Riley) and wrote that the hemp of Rosea, in the territory of the Sabines, grew as tall as trees.[19] The agronomist Columella gave hemp a rich, manured and well-watered soil, sown at six seeds to the square foot towards the end of February.[20] Pollen cores from Lago Albano and Lago di Nemi, near Rome, show hemp pollen becoming more abundant from about 3000 years before present. The highest early peak, 21 per cent of the pollen, dates to the 1st century AD, which Anna Maria Mercuri and colleagues read as evidence that the Romans cultivated the plant.[21]

Bologna, Venice and the Arsenal

The first large expansion of hemp growing in Italy began in the 13th and 14th centuries, for ropes, lines, nets, sacks, rigging and cloth.[1]: 97–98 At the beginning of the 15th century the Republic of Venice drew its hemp chiefly from Bologna and from Tana on the Black Sea, the outlet for Russian and Caspian hemp.[1]: 100 Supplies also came from the Paduan plain earlier than this. Notarial acts of the second half of the 14th century show land at Montagnana under hemp. In 1334 the Venetian Senate declared or threatened an embargo on hemp and flax from the Paduan territory.[22]: 10, 35

In 1455 Venice set up hemp plantations between Este, Montagnana and Cologna Veneta to feed the rope-works of the Arsenal and to replace imports, which came above all from Emilia. The Senate required owners and tenants to give the crop land in proportion to their pairs of oxen; the scheme followed the advice of a Bolognese agronomist and gave the district a network of canals, retting pits and warehouses. The historian David Celetti notes that Budrio, in the Bolognese countryside, was regarded as the home of the best hemp growing in Italy.[23] Hemp for the Arsenal still came mainly from Emilia in the early modern period, with a share from the Black Sea and less from the Marche and Piedmont.[1]: 100

The Piedmont plain and the French navy

In the 18th century some districts began to grow hemp for the market, above all the plain between Turin and Cuneo, driven by the demand of the expanding French navy. The Carmagnola district became the centre of rope production and the main hemp market of the region.[1]: 100

Unification to the Second World War

Hemp production grew markedly in the two decades after the unification of Italy in 1861. Competition from other textile plants and foreign cloth, the navy's turn to metal chains, the parasitic plant Orobanche ramosa and the lack of new retting methods were already weighing on the crop.[1]: 103 Mechanical spinning and weaving of hemp began in Lombardy in the 1840s. At the start of the 20th century the merger of three Lombard firms made the Linificio e Canapificio Nazionale the largest maker of hemp yarn and cloth in Europe.[1]: 102

The Fascist state treated hemp as an autarkic fibre to replace imported cotton and in the 1930s supported it with state purchasing.[1]: 103 A judgment of the Constitutional Court in 1963 set out the legal chain. A national federation of compulsory consortia for the defence of hemp growing existed from 1934. A royal decree-law of 2 January 1936 obliged growers to declare their hemp land and crop every year. A second, of 8 November 1936, gave the federation Federcanapa the task of coordinating the production and the market of hemp, with powers to license growing, propose the area to be sown in each province and run compulsory pooling of the crop. A decree-law of 1941 gave the Ente nazionale esportazione canapa a monopoly of hemp exports.[24] The hemp area grew markedly between 1934 and 1941 and began to fall in 1942.[1]: 103 During the war Italian mills developed the processing of unretted fibre, canapa verde, for packing cloth and sacks in place of jute.[25]

Decline

A lieutenancy decree-law of 17 September 1944 replaced the export body and Federcanapa with a Consorzio nazionale canapa, renamed Consorzio nazionale produttori canapa in 1953. On 4 April 1963 the Constitutional Court struck down the whole hemp regime of 1936, 1944, 1952 and 1953 as contrary to article 41 of the Constitution, on economic freedom. The case came from the magistrate of Frattamaggiore, who was trying a man for illicitly obtaining 116 kilograms of combed hemp.[24]

The sources date the end of the crop differently. Cacchioni, after Giovanni Amadei, writes that Italian hemp growing declined after the war "until it finally collapsed in 1971". He lists the replacement of hemp in many uses and the failure to mechanise, especially in the south.[1]: 103–104 Fabio Fatichenti dates the abandonment from the early 1950s and names synthetic fibres as the main cause. He adds that prohibitionist laws, those of the United States in 1937 and of Italy in 1975, also affected fibre hemp.[2]: 154 For Campania, Anna Maria Frallicciardi, citing Manzi (1974), names competition from synthetic fibres, the spread of fruit and vegetable growing, rising labour costs, industry and urban growth; by 1974 only 100 hectares remained in the whole Campanian plain, against more than 20,000 in the autarky period.[13]: 162–163

Cultivation

Retting

Italian hemp was water-retted. In Emilia the bundles were sunk in a macero, a water-filled pit, in layers laid in opposite directions and held down with heavy stones; the pits stank and were associated with rheumatism and malaria.[12]: 150 In Campania the pits were called gore or lagni.[16] In the Biellese the stalks were retted in running water, weighted with stones in pools on the banks of streams.[14]: 141 Retting in the open persisted until growing stopped in the second half of the 20th century.[1]: 97 In the municipality of Ferrara the number of surviving maceri fell from 970 to about 440 by the census of 2004–2008; Pistocchi describes them as artificial wetlands left by the old hemp industry.[12]: 152–153

Landraces and varieties

The plant breeder Paolo Ranalli calls Carmagnola "the oldest hemp landrace grown in Italy", first grown in the Carmagnola district and later across the country. Mass selection in Italy turned it into the Bolognese, Toscana and Ferrarese ecotypes, named for the places they were grown.[26]: 122 The 1915 consular report distinguished the two types: seed from Ferrara or Bologna gave a light, hollow stalk, while Carmagnola seed gave a woodier stalk with less fibre. It reported Carmagnola hemp as more productive than that of Emilia and said to resist Orobanche.[10]: 32 Dewey used the Ferrara landrace as a parent of his American variety Ferramington.[26]: 122

Crossing produced the varieties Fibranova, C.S. (Carmagnola Selezionata), Eletta Campana and Superfibra.[26]: 123 Carmagnola is a dioecious landrace; C.S. is a selection from it and Fibranova was selected from a cross of Carmagnola with the German Bredemann Elite. In a comparison with RAPD markers, Silvia Forapani and colleagues could tell apart all the varieties they studied except Carmagnola and C.S., for which they found no discriminating alleles.[27] The institute in Bologna, merged in 1968 with the sugar-beet station at Rovigo, bred or maintained Carmagnola, Fibranova, C.S. and Eletta Campana.[18] A breeding programme begun there in 1995 released three dioecious and four monoecious varieties.[26]: 124

Italian seed was among the seed of nine strains grown for research by the University of Mississippi and described in 1971.[28]

Unlicensed cultivation

The police anti-drug directorate recorded 154,819 cannabis plants seized in 2024 in 470 operations. Sardinia accounted for 100,336 of them; 89.90 per cent of the plants were seized in the south and the islands. Between 2015 and 2024 seizures averaged a little under 290,000 plants a year, with a peak of 524,904 in 2018.[29]

Preparations and consumption

Italian hemp went into ropes, lines, nets, sacks, rigging and cloth, shirts and sheets.[1]: 97–98 Medical cannabis is produced by the state. Under an agreement of the health and defence ministers of 18 September 2014, the Stabilimento Chimico Farmaceutico Militare in Florence makes Cannabis FM2, dried flowers containing 5 to 8 per cent THC and 7.5 to 12 per cent cannabidiol.[30] It has been available for prescription since 14 December 2016.[31]

Trade and commerce

Italy exported about half its hemp in the 1920s: 519,420 quintals in 1924 and 839,033 in 1927, with buyers in Germany, England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and the United States.[16] In 1948–52 it was the world's largest exporter, with 22,000 tonnes of fibre.[3] In the mid-1950s Campania produced about 180,000 quintals of raw hemp a year. Of this, 55 per cent went to mills in the north, among them the Linificio e Canapificio Nazionale of Milan; the rest went to local industry at Frattamaggiore and Sarno.[13]: 162 By the 1970s Italy had become the world's largest importer of hemp.[4][17]

Cannabis and its products are listed in Table II of the consolidated drug law, Decree of the President of the Republic no. 309 of 9 October 1990. Article 73 punishes unauthorised cultivation, production and sale.[5] Possession for personal use is not a criminal offence: under article 75 it brings administrative sanctions, such as suspension of a driving licence or passport, for one to three months for substances in Table II.[5][7] The criminal penalty for personal use was removed by the referendum of 18 April 1993.[6][32] In 2014 the Constitutional Court struck down the amendments made to article 73 in 2005–2006, so the earlier text applies again.[5] In 2022 the court declared inadmissible a referendum that would have removed cultivation from article 73.[32] The joint chambers of the Court of Cassation held in December 2019 that growing a few plants at home, by rudimentary methods and clearly for the grower's own use, falls outside the criminal law.[33]

Law no. 242 of 2 December 2016 allows hemp of the varieties in the European Union's Common Catalogue to be grown without authorisation. A crop testing above 0.2 per cent THC but within 0.6 per cent brings no liability on a farmer who has kept the law. A crop can be seized or destroyed only above 0.6 per cent.[8] In 2019 the Court of Cassation held that the law did not cover selling the plant's leaves, flowers, oil or resin to the public.[34] Article 18 of decree-law no. 48 of 11 April 2025, in force from 12 April 2025 and converted by law no. 80 of 9 June 2025, forbade the import, sale, processing and transport of hemp flowers and of products made from them and applied the penalties of the drug law.[35][8] The tribunal of Brindisi referred the ban to the Constitutional Court in an order of 2 December 2025.[9] The European Commission said in September 2026 that it would await the ruling of the Court of Justice in case C-716/25, a reference on the earlier Italian rules, before acting on complaints against the ban.[36]

Medical cannabis is supplied through the state: a decree of the health ministry of 9 November 2015 gave it the functions of the national cannabis agency required by articles 23 and 28 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.[37] Italy signed the convention on 4 April 1961 and ratified it on 14 April 1975.[38]

Growing Regions

Landrace cannabis growing regions currently documented on the wiki: No growing regions documented yet.

Growing Areas

Landrace cannabis growing areas currently documented on the wiki: No growing areas documented yet.

Accessions

No accessions documented yet.

Conservation status

The old Italian fibre types survive as varieties kept by the state breeding institute. The institute at Bologna and Rovigo, now part of the agricultural research council CREA, was the breeder or maintainer of Carmagnola, Fibranova, C.S. and Eletta Campana.[18] Ranalli counted Italy among the countries whose genebanks held small hemp collections of up to 20 accessions.[26]: 122 Carmagnola itself entered the pedigree of many later cultivars in Italy and abroad.[26]: 122

Recent news

No recent news items.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Cacchioni, D. (2021). "Hemp and industry in Italy: between pasts and present". AGER: Revista de Estudios sobre Despoblación y Desarrollo Rural (32): 93–115. doi:10.4422/ager.2021.09.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Fatichenti, F. (2008). "Verso una reintroduzione della coltura della canapa (Cannabis sativa) nell'Umbria sud-orientale" (PDF). Geotema (in italiano) (35–36). Bologna: Pàtron: 154–160.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Desmireanu, B. (1961). "Canapa". Enciclopedia Italiana (in italiano) (III Appendice ed.). Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Scognamiglio, R. (1978). "Canapa". Enciclopedia Italiana (in italiano) (IV Appendice ed.). Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Testo unico delle leggi in materia di disciplina degli stupefacenti e sostanze psicotrope, prevenzione, cura e riabilitazione dei relativi stati di tossicodipendenza(Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica No. 309), 9 October 1990.Italy.Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Abrogazione parziale, a seguito di referendum popolare, del testo unico delle leggi in materia di disciplina degli stupefacenti e sostanze psicotrope(Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica No. 171), 5 June 1993.Italy.Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Penalties for drug law offences in Europe at a glance". European Union Drugs Agency. 4 September 2024. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Disposizioni per la promozione della coltivazione e della filiera agroindustriale della canapa(Legge No. 242), 2 December 2016.Italy.Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Ordinanza del 2 dicembre 2025 del Tribunale di Brindisi nel procedimento penale a carico di G. A. e I. C. (ordinanza n. 26 del 2026)". Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana, 1a Serie Speciale – Corte Costituzionale (in italiano). 25 February 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry (1918). Inventory of seeds and plants imported by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction during the period from January 1 to March 31, 1915 (No. 42; Nos. 39682 to 40388) (PDF) (Report). Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 31–32.
  11. ↑ Dewey, Lyster H. (1914). "Hemp". Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture 1913. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 283–346.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Pistocchi, F. (2008). "Geografie, paesaggi e culture della canapa in Emilia-Romagna" (PDF). Geotema (in italiano) (35–36). Bologna: Pàtron: 149–153.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Frallicciardi, A.M. (2008). "La coltivazione della canapa in Campania: una storia senza futuro?" (PDF). Geotema (in italiano) (35–36). Bologna: Pàtron: 161–163.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Vachino, G. (2008). "La canapa nel Biellese" (PDF). Geotema (in italiano) (35–36). Bologna: Pàtron: 140–143.
  15. ↑ Pongetti, C. (2008). "Piante e fibre tessili nelle Marche: sedimentazioni nel paesaggio" (PDF). Geotema (in italiano) (35–36). Bologna: Pàtron: 164–168.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Sessa, E.; Lanza, D. (1930). "Canapa". Enciclopedia Italiana (in italiano). Vol. 8. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cecilia, A. (1991). "Canapa". Enciclopedia Italiana (in italiano) (V Appendice ed.). Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Mandolino, G. "La canapa a Rovigo" (PDF) (in italiano). CREA, Centro di ricerca Cerealicoltura e Colture Industriali. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via Regione Siciliana.
  19. ↑ Pliny the Elder (1855). The Natural History. Translated by John Bostock and H. T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis. book 19, chapter 56 – via Perseus Digital Library.
  20. ↑ Columella (1941). On Agriculture. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 1. Harvard University Press. 2.10.21 – via LacusCurtius.
  21. ↑ Mercuri, A.M.; Accorsi, C.A.; Bandini Mazzanti, M. (2002). "The long history of Cannabis and its cultivation by the Romans in central Italy, shown by pollen records from Lago Albano and Lago di Nemi". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 11 (4): 263–276. doi:10.1007/s003340200039.
  22. ↑ Danieli, G. (2022). "La produzione ed il mercato della canapa di Montagnana in età carrarese: una prospettiva di indagine" (PDF). Archivio Veneto. Sesta serie (in italiano) (24). Deputazione di Storia Patria per le Venezie: 7–45.
  23. ↑ Celetti, D. (2007). "Il servizio di trasporto della canapa da Montagnana all'Arsenale di Venezia in età moderna" (PDF). In Lopane, I.; Ritrovato, E. (eds.). Tra vecchi e nuovi equilibri: domanda e offerta di servizi in Italia in età moderna e contemporanea. Atti del quinto Convegno nazionale, Torino, 12–13 novembre 2004 (in italiano). Bari: Cacucci.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Sentenza n. 46 del 1963" (in italiano). Corte costituzionale. 4 April 1963. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via Consulta OnLine.
  25. ↑ Boggi, B. (1948). "Canapa". Enciclopedia Italiana (in italiano) (II Appendice ed.). Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 Ranalli, P. (2004). "Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding". Euphytica. 140 (1–2): 121–131. doi:10.1007/s10681-004-4760-0.
  27. ↑ Forapani, S.; Carboni, A.; Paoletti, C.; Moliterni, V.M.C.; Ranalli, P.; Mandolino, G. (2001). "Comparison of hemp varieties using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers". Crop Science. 41 (6): 1682–1689. doi:10.2135/cropsci2001.1682.
  28. ↑ Fetterman, P.S.; Keith, E.S.; Waller, C.W.; Guerrero, O.; Doorenbos, N.J.; Quimby, M.W. (August 1971). "Mississippi-grown Cannabis sativa L.: preliminary observation on chemical definition of phenotype and variations in tetrahydrocannabinol content versus age, sex, and plant part". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 60 (8): 1246–1249. doi:10.1002/jps.2600600832. PMID 5127101.
  29. ↑ Direzione Centrale per i Servizi Antidroga (2025). Relazione annuale 2025 (PDF) (Report) (in italiano). Rome: Ministero dell'Interno, Dipartimento della Pubblica Sicurezza. pp. 108–111.
  30. ↑ Ministero della Salute, Direzione generale dei dispositivi medici e del servizio farmaceutico. "Avvio della commercializzazione della sostanza attiva Cannabis FM-2 (circolare DGDSFC/I.6.b/2016/19)" (PDF) (in italiano). Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via Agenzia Italiana del Farmaco.
  31. ↑ "Raccomandazioni per il medico prescrittore di sostanza vegetale Cannabis FM2 infiorescenze" (PDF) (in italiano). Istituto Superiore di Sanità. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Sentenza n. 51 del 2022" (in italiano). Corte costituzionale. 16 February 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via Consulta OnLine.
  33. ↑ Bray, C. (20 April 2020). "Le Sezioni unite dichiarano l'irrilevanza penale della coltivazione di piante stupefacenti finalizzata esclusivamente all'uso personale". Sistema Penale (in italiano). Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  34. ↑ "Corte di cassazione, Sezioni unite penali, sentenza n. 30475 del 2019" (PDF) (in italiano). Corte suprema di cassazione. 10 July 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2026 – via Wolters Kluwer.
  35. ↑ Disposizioni urgenti in materia di sicurezza pubblica, di tutela del personale in servizio, nonché di vittime dell'usura e di ordinamento penitenziario(Decreto-legge No. 48), 11 April 2025.Italy.Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  36. ↑ "Notice on multiple complaint CPLT(2025)01027: pre-closure letter". European Commission. 23 September 2026. Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  37. ↑ Ministero della Salute (30 November 2015). "Decreto 9 novembre 2015: Funzioni di Organismo statale per la cannabis previsto dagli articoli 23 e 28 della convenzione unica sugli stupefacenti del 1961, come modificata nel 1972". Gazzetta Ufficiale, Serie Generale (in italiano). Retrieved 21 October 2026.
  38. ↑ "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961". United Nations Treaty Collection. Chapter VI, 15. Retrieved 3 October 2026.
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