Sri Lanka
More actions
| Sri Lanka | |
|---|---|
| ශ්රී ලංකාව (Shrī Lankāva) / இலங்கை (Ilaṅkai) | |
| Flag | File:Flag of Sri Lanka.png |
| Capital | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte |
| Continent | Asia |
| Gene Pool | South Asian |
| Cannabis Status | |
| Legal Status | Illegal (Ayurvedic exemption) |
| Status Since | 1935 |
| Enforcement | Active eradication; Ayurvedic production under state licence |
| Documentation | |
| Growing Regions | 0 |
| Growing Areas | 0 |
| Accessions | 1 |
Sri Lanka (Sinhala: ශ්රී ලංකාව, Shrī Lankāva; Tamil: இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai), formerly Ceylon, has one of the longest documented histories of medicinal cannabis use in the world. Cannabis (Sinhala: කංසා, kansā; also ගංජා, ganjā; Tamil: கஞ்சா, kañcā) first appears in the Sri Lankan literary record in the Sarartha Sangrahaya (සාරාර්ථ සංග්රහය), a medical pharmacopoeia attributed to King Buddhadasa and dated to 341 AD.[1] Weliange (2018) catalogued approximately 20 Ayurvedic texts mentioning cannabis, spanning from that fourth-century pharmacopoeia through to the Desheeya Guli Kalka Sagaraya of 1999.[1]
Cannabis is cultivated on a large scale in the eastern and southern provinces of Sri Lanka. The estimated area under cannabis cultivation was 500 hectares in 2003, with seizures in that year totalling 73,714 kg.[2] In addition to domestic production, cannabis is smuggled into the country from the Indian state of Kerala across the Palk Strait; the National Dangerous Drugs Control Board (NDDCB) tracks "Kerala Cannabis" (කේරළ කංසා) as a separate category in its arrest and seizure statistics.[3] In 2024, there were 75,602 cannabis-related arrests, accounting for 33.1% of all drug arrests in the country that year.[4]
Sri Lanka's legal framework is distinctive. Cannabis has been criminalised since the Poisons, Opium and Dangerous Drugs Ordinance No. 43 of 1935, but the Ayurveda Act No. 31 of 1961 simultaneously grants registered Ayurvedic practitioners legal access to cannabis and opium for the manufacture of traditional medicines.[2] The Ayurvedic Drug Corporation at Navinna continues to produce named cannabis-based medicines, consuming 1,261.64 kg of cannabis in 2023 and 600 kg in 2024.[5] This dual system, in which the same plant is simultaneously a criminal substance and a licensed medicine, has operated continuously since 1961.
No systematic botanical study, genetic characterisation, or chemotype analysis of Sri Lankan cannabis landraces has ever been conducted.citation needed
Cannabis in Sri Lankan Culture
Vocabulary
The Sinhala term කංසා (kansā) and ගංජා (ganjā) derive from Sanskrit, as does the Tamil கஞ්சா (kañcā). Cannabis is also known in Sinhala as හණ (haṇa, hemp) in botanical and textile contexts. The NDDCB uses the term "Kerala Cannabis" (කේරළ කංසා) to distinguish cannabis smuggled from India from domestically cultivated cannabis.citation needed
Medicinal Use
Main article: Cannabis in Ayurvedic medicine in Sri Lanka
Cannabis has been documented as a medicinal ingredient in Sri Lankan Ayurvedic texts continuously from the fourth century AD through the twentieth century. Weliange (2018) catalogued approximately 20 texts, covering ophthalmic treatments, medicinal oils, diarrhoeal remedies, veterinary medicine, edible medicines, and official pharmacopoeias.[1] For the full catalogue, see the Historical Source page.
Diddeniya and Kulatunga (2021) systematically reviewed all 21 volumes of the Thalpathe Piliyam (තල්පත් පිළියම්, "Palm-leaf Remedies"), a government compilation of traditional formulae transcribed from ola leaf manuscripts, and identified 267 cannabis-containing formulations. The majority are pills (48%) used at low concentrations (63% at 5% or less cannabis by weight), treating primarily gastrointestinal (49%) and nervous system (41%) conditions. In the Ayurvedic pharmacological framework, cannabis is classified as a cerebral delirient under neurotic poisons and must undergo purification (shodhana) before medicinal use.[6] For the full analysis, see the Historical Source page.
The Ayurveda Act No. 31 of 1961 (as amended by Act No. 5 of 1962) provides the legal foundation for continuing medicinal use. The UNODC noted in 2005 that draft legislation was under discussion to allow limited and controlled cultivation of cannabis for use by the estimated 16,000 locally registered Ayurvedic practitioners, as the existing system of using powdered cannabis processed from police seizures "does not conform to traditional methods."[2]
The Ayurvedic Drug Corporation
Main article: Ayurvedic Drug Corporation
The Ayurvedic Drug Corporation at Navinna produces cannabis-based medicines under state licence. According to NDDCB data, these include Suranviduravatee (සුරංවිදුරාවටී), Madana Modakaya (මදන මෝදකය), Kameshwari Modakaya (කාමේශ්වරී මෝදකය), Buddaraja Kalkaya (බුද්ධරාජ කල්කය) and Ranahansa Rasayanaya (රණහංස රසායනය).[5]
The Corporation obtains its cannabis from the Ministry of Health, which sources it primarily from police seizures of illicit cannabis. The UNODC noted in 2005 that practitioners were using "powdered cannabis processed from seized cannabis and sold to them by the Ayurvedic Drugs Corporation."[2]
| Year | Corporation (Navinna) | Registered doctors/producers | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2020 | 477 | ||
| 2021 | 810 | ||
| 2022 | 614 | ||
| 2023 | 617.81 | 643.83 | 1,261.64 |
| 2024 | 600 |
Source: NDDCB Handbook 2025.[5]
Culinary and Recreational Use
The UNODC estimated in 2005 that there were approximately 600,000 cannabis users in Sri Lanka.[2]
Legal History
Dutch Period (1640--1796)
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) administered the maritime provinces of Ceylon from 1640 to 1796. Governor Ryckloff Van Goens documented opium importation from Surat and Bengal in his memoirs, written around 1663 and left for his successor.[7] The memoirs were published in English translation as Selections from the Dutch Records of the Ceylon Government, No. 3, translated by E. Reimers (Colombo: Ceylon Government Press, 1932).[7]
A widely circulated claim that the Dutch banned narcotic trafficking in Ceylon in 1675 cannot be verified from the available sources. Uragoda (1983), the definitive scholarly account of the Dutch period drug trade, does not mention any such ban despite discussing the Dutch period extensively. The claim circulates through Wikipedia, Sensi Seeds, and secondary sources, all of which trace back to each other in a circular citation chain. The most promising lead is D.C. Jayasuriya's Narcotics and Drugs in Sri Lanka: Socio-Legal Dimensions (1986), which has not yet been consulted.citation needed
British Colonial Period (1796--1948)
Early Regulation
The British assumed control of the maritime provinces in 1796 and the Kandyan kingdom in 1815. Opium was subject to customs duties from the outset; the first opium shop opened in Chilaw around 1850, with a second in Hambantota around 1860 near the Malay population. By 1867 there were sufficient shops to warrant formal regulation.[7]
Opium and Bhang Ordinance No. 19 of 1867
On 13 November 1867, the Legislative Council of Ceylon enacted Ordinance No. 19, "An ordinance to prohibit the sale of opium and bang except by duly licensed persons." A sub-committee headed by R.F. Morgan, the Queen's Advocate (equivalent of Attorney-General), reported that the ordinance would be useful in "restricting the use of opium and bang (ganja or hashish)" and "giving the police due surveillance of the places where they are consumed."[7] This was the first statute in Ceylon to regulate cannabis alongside opium.
1893 Public Agitation
In December 1893, a mass public meeting in Colombo demanded government action on the opium trade. The meeting was attended by representatives of all races and classes and adopted a memorial to the Legislative Council signed by 13,957 Sinhalese, 11,878 Tamils, 1,265 Burghers, 265 Europeans, and 465 of other nationalities: a total of over 27,000 signatories.[7] The anti-opium agitation was led by Rev. Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala, a leading figure in the Buddhist renaissance, and Mr S.C. Obeyesekere, a member of the Legislative Council. Buddhism's fifth precept against intoxicants gave the movement a religious dimension alongside its public health arguments.[7]
1897 Import Ban
In 1897, Governor Sir West Ridgeway doubled the duty on opium from Rs. 1 to Rs. 2 per pound and banned the import of bang (ganja) into Ceylon.[7] He also appointed a select committee in 1898, which reported that the opium habit had spread to a "remarkable degree."[7]
1907 House of Commons Debate
On 15 April 1907, Dr Rutherford MP asked in the House of Commons whether the Sinhalese people grew the poppy or used opium under their native kings, during the Portuguese or Dutch rule, or only after the British Government established licensed shops. Winston Churchill, holding his first government office as Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, replied that he could not dispute the facts and that the matter had "already formed the subject of official inquiry."[7] This exchange led to the appointment of the Allan Perry committee, whose recommendations resulted in the closure of opium shops across Ceylon.[7]
Indian Hemp Ordinance (1907)
In 1907, Ceylon enacted the Indian Hemp Ordinance, the first statute to impose criminal penalties specifically for cannabis.[8] The proposed companion Opium Ordinance of 1909, intended to restrict opium use to Ayurvedic practitioners (Vedaralas), was opposed by Governor Sir Henry McCallum, who objected that Eastern medical science was "essentially secret" and that registration of practitioners was not possible.[8]
Post-Independence
Poisons, Opium and Dangerous Drugs Ordinance No. 43 of 1935
The Poisons, Opium and Dangerous Drugs Ordinance No. 43 of 1935 consolidated all prior drug legislation and brought Ceylon into compliance with international treaty obligations. It remains the backbone of Sri Lankan drug law to this day, as subsequently amended.[2] The Ordinance governs the import, export, manufacture, sale, and possession of listed substances including cannabis.
Ayurveda Act No. 31 of 1961
Main article: Ayurveda Act No. 31 of 1961
The Ayurveda Act (Act No. 31 of 1961, as amended by Act No. 5 of 1962) "entitles ayurvedic physicians to obtain opium and cannabis for manufacture of their medicinal preparations."[2] This created the dual legal framework that continues to operate: cannabis is criminalised under the 1935 Ordinance, and simultaneously a licensed medicine under the 1961 Act.
Current Legal Status
The Poisons, Opium and Dangerous Drugs Ordinance (as amended) remains the governing statute. Other relevant legislation includes the Cosmetics, Devices and Drugs Act (No. 27 of 1980, as amended by Act No. 38 of 1984), the Customs Ordinance (No. 17 of 1869), and the Penal Code (Ordinance No. 2 of 1883, Chapter 14 on public health and safety).[2]
As of 2005, draft legislation was under discussion that would allow limited and controlled cultivation by the Commissioner of Ayurveda at a single central location, to replace the existing system of supplying powdered seized cannabis to practitioners.[2] The status of this proposed legislation is unclear.citation needed
Recent News
Cultivation
Domestic Production
Cannabis is cultivated on a large scale in the eastern and southern provinces of Sri Lanka.[2] The estimated land area under cannabis cultivation was 500 hectares as of 2003.[2] The Sri Lankan Excise Department and the Police conduct periodic eradication campaigns to curtail cultivation.[2]
Cannabis seizure data provides a proxy for production trends:
| Year | Cannabis | Kerala Cannabis | Total |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1997 | 113,238 | 113,238 | |
| 1998 | 24,825 | 24,825 | |
| 1999 | 80,000 | 80,000 | |
| 2000 | 37,550 | 37,550 | |
| 2001 | 77,021 | 77,021 | |
| 2002 | 25,834 | 25,834 | |
| 2003 | 73,714 | 73,714 | |
| 2021 | 10,107 | 5,521 | 15,628 |
| 2024 | 8,360 | 8,360 |
Sources: UNODC (2005);[2] NDDCB (2021);[3] NDDCB (2024).[4]
The dramatic decline in seizure volumes from the late 1990s to the 2020s may reflect reduced domestic production, changed enforcement priorities (the post-2000 shift towards heroin and methamphetamine), or both. The 2024 data does not separate Kerala Cannabis from domestic cannabis in the seizure table.citation needed
Kerala Cannabis
A significant portion of the cannabis consumed in Sri Lanka is smuggled from the Indian state of Kerala across the Palk Strait. The NDDCB tracks this as a separate category: "Kerala Cannabis" (කේරළ කංසා). In 2021, there were 11,068 arrests specifically for Kerala Cannabis, accounting for 10% of all drug arrests, in addition to 33,171 arrests for domestic cannabis.[3]
Smuggling routes run from the Tamil Nadu coast (Rameswaram) to the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka, with Point Pedro, Talaimannar, and Kalpitiya identified as major entry points.[3] The Northern Province accounts for a disproportionate share of Kerala Cannabis arrests: 10% of all Kerala Cannabis arrests in 2021, compared to just 1.1% of domestic cannabis arrests.[3]
The 2024 trend report does not separate Kerala Cannabis as a distinct arrest category, making direct comparison with earlier years difficult.[4]
Varieties and Genetics
No systematic botanical collection, genetic characterisation, or chemotype analysis of Sri Lankan cannabis landraces has ever been conducted.citation needed
The NDDCB's operational distinction between domestic cannabis and "Kerala Cannabis" suggests at least two recognisable varieties circulate in the Sri Lankan market, though whether these represent genetically distinct populations or differences in processing and provenance has not been studied.citation needed
Enforcement
Institutional Framework
The National Dangerous Drugs Control Board (NDDCB), established in 1984 under the Ministry of Defence (later transferred to the Ministry of Public Security, Law and Order), is responsible for overseeing and coordinating all drug control activities. The Board comprises representatives from the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, Department of Police, Department of Customs, Government Analyst, Department of Ayurveda, and Ministry of Finance.[2]
The Police Narcotics Bureau is the primary enforcement agency. The UNODC noted in 2005 that long-standing violence and political tension had "diminished the ability of law enforcement to address drug trafficking concerns adequately."[2]
Arrest Trends
Drug-related arrests have risen steeply over the past two decades:
| Year | Total arrests | Cannabis | Kerala Cannabis | Heroin | Methamphetamine |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2010 | 20,259 | ||||
| 2011 | 28,047 | ||||
| 2012 | 31,093 | ||||
| 2013 | 42,319 | ||||
| 2014 | 43,683 | ||||
| 2021 | 110,031 | 33,171 | 11,068 | 50,412 | 13,720 |
| 2024 | 228,450 | 75,602 | (not separated) | 75,097 | 68,132 |
Sources: NDDCB (2021);[3] NDDCB (2024).[4]
Total drug arrests have increased more than tenfold between 2010 and 2024. The most significant shift is the rise of methamphetamine, which accounted for less than 1% of arrests in the early 2010s and 29.8% in 2024.[4] Cannabis (domestic and Kerala combined) remains the largest single category at 33.1% of arrests in 2024, though heroin is nearly equal at 32.9%.[4]
Provincial Distribution
The Western Province (centred on Colombo) dominates drug enforcement statistics across all categories. In 2021, the Western Province accounted for 62% of all drug-related arrests: 73% of heroin arrests, 38% of domestic cannabis arrests, and 54% of Kerala Cannabis arrests.[3] In 2024, the Western Province accounted for 68.5% of all drug arrests.[4]
Cannabis arrests are more evenly distributed across provinces than heroin arrests. In 2021, the Uva Province (8.5% of cannabis arrests), Southern Province (17%), and North Western Province (9.6%) all had significant cannabis enforcement activity, reflecting widespread domestic cultivation.[3]
Drug Prices
| Year | Price per kg | Market | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2003 | Rs. 1,500 (US$15) locals; Rs. 2,000 (US$20) foreigners | Street | UNODC (2005)[2] |
Growing Regions
No growing regions documented yet.
Growing Areas
No growing areas documented yet.
Conservation Status
Sri Lanka's cannabis landraces face threats from active eradication campaigns, potential genetic contamination from smuggled Kerala Cannabis, and the absence of any formal conservation or characterisation effort. The Ayurvedic Drug Corporation's reliance on seized cannabis rather than purpose-grown stock means that the legal medicinal system provides no conservation function for specific varieties or genetic lineages.citation needed
Historical Sources
The following Historical Source pages document primary and secondary sources for Sri Lanka's cannabis history:
- An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon (Knox 1681) -- Robert Knox's account of bangue use among the Sinhalese during his captivity (1660--1679). The earliest English-language account of cannabis use in Ceylon.
- Robert Hooke Bangue Experiment (1689) -- The first controlled experiment with cannabis in European scientific history, conducted at the Royal Society using Knox's sample.
- History of Opium in Sri Lanka (Uragoda 1983) -- The definitive scholarly account of colonial drug regulation, covering the Dutch, Portuguese, and British periods. 29 footnotes to primary sources.
- History of Medical Cannabis in Sri Lanka (Weliange 2018) -- Conference abstract cataloguing ~20 Ayurvedic texts mentioning cannabis from 341 AD to 1999.
- Thalpathe Piliyam -- Twenty-one-volume government compilation of traditional medical formulae transcribed from ola leaf manuscripts (1992--present). Contains at least 267 cannabis formulations.
Bibliography
- * Uragoda, C.G. "History of Opium in Sri Lanka." Medical History 27 (1983): 69--76. -- The foundational secondary source for colonial drug regulation; 29 footnotes to primary colonial documents.
- * Weliange, W.S. "History of Medical Cannabis in Sri Lanka." Journal of Neurology and Neurophysiology 9 (2018). DOI: 10.4172/2155-9562-C9-085. -- Conference abstract; only published catalogue of Ayurvedic texts mentioning cannabis.
- * Diddeniya, J. I. D. and W. M. S. S. K. Kulatunga. "Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) Containing Drug Formulations Mentioned in 'Thalpathe piliyam': A Review." South Asian Journal of Social Studies and Economics 11(4) (2021): 1--8. DOI: 10.9734/SAJSSE/2021/v11i430290. -- Systematic review of all 267 cannabis formulations across the 21-volume Thalpathe Piliyam series. Open access.
- * UNODC. South Asia: Regional Profile. September 2005. -- Comprehensive assessment of the legal framework, cultivation, trafficking, and institutional capacity.
- * National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Drug Related Statistics 2021. Rajagiriya: NDDCB, 2021. -- Detailed arrest, seizure, and provincial data with Kerala Cannabis separated.
- * National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Handbook of Drug Abuse Information: Sri Lanka 2025. Rajagiriya: NDDCB, 2025. -- Ayurvedic Drug Corporation production data.
- National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Drug Abuse Trend Report: Sri Lanka 2024. Rajagiriya: NDDCB, 2024.
- Abeyewickreme, I., et al. (eds.). History of Medicine in Sri Lanka 1948--2017. Colombo: Sri Lanka Medical Association, 2018.
- Dillon, Éloïse. "Twenty Texts, Seventeen Centuries: Sri Lanka's History of Cannabis in the Literary Record." Zomia Collective (Patreon), 3 March 2026. [1]
- Dillon, Éloïse. "267 Formulations on Palm Leaf: Cannabis in Sri Lankan Traditional Medicine." Zomia Collective (Patreon), March 2026.
Sources Still Needed
- Jayasuriya, D.C. Narcotics and Drugs in Sri Lanka: Socio-Legal Dimensions. Nawala: Asian Pathfinders, 1986. -- Likely the original scholarly source for the 1675 Dutch ban claim. HathiTrust (limited view).
- Uragoda, C.G. A History of Medicine in Sri Lanka from the Earliest Times to 1948. Colombo: Sri Lanka Medical Association, 1987. -- The backbone citation for many Wikipedia claims. Still in print from SLMA (Rs. 100).
- Emdad-ul Haq, M. Drugs in South Asia: From the Opium Trade to the Present Day. Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. -- Broadest scholarly context for South Asian drug policy.
- Weliange, W.S. [Book on cannabis in Sri Lanka, 2017]. -- Title in Sinhala, not translated. May contain the bibliographic detail missing from the 2018 abstract.
See Also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Weliange, W.S. (2018). "History of Medical Cannabis in Sri Lanka." Journal of Neurology and Neurophysiology 9. DOI: 10.4172/2155-9562-C9-085.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 UNODC. South Asia: Regional Profile. September 2005, pp. 102--112.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Drug Related Statistics 2021. Rajagiriya: NDDCB, 2021.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Drug Abuse Trend Report: Sri Lanka 2024. Rajagiriya: NDDCB, 2024.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 National Dangerous Drugs Control Board. Handbook of Drug Abuse Information: Sri Lanka 2025. Rajagiriya: NDDCB, 2025.
- ↑ Diddeniya, J. I. D. and W. M. S. S. K. Kulatunga (2021). "Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) Containing Drug Formulations Mentioned in 'Thalpathe piliyam': A Review." South Asian Journal of Social Studies and Economics 11(4): 1--8. DOI: 10.9734/SAJSSE/2021/v11i430290.
- ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 Uragoda, C.G. (1983). "History of Opium in Sri Lanka." Medical History 27: 69--76.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Abeyewickreme, I., Abeykoon, P., Karalliedde, L., and Veerasingam, P. (eds.). History of Medicine in Sri Lanka 1948--2017. Colombo: Sri Lanka Medical Association, 2018.