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|image = Rasol-Grahan-View-01.jpg
|image = Rasol-Grahan-View-01.jpg
|image_caption = View of the Parvati Valley in Kullu District
|image_caption = View of the Parvati Valley in Kullu District
|show_map = yes
|gene_pool = South Asian Gene Pool
|gene_pool = South Asian Gene Pool
|regional_complex = Hindu Kush-Himalayan
|regional_complex = Hindu Kush-Himalayan
|country = [[India]]
|country = India
|provinces = [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]]
|provinces = Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu and Kashmir
|elevation_range = 1,500–3,500 m
|elevation_range = 500–3,500 m
|climate = Temperate montane
|climate = Temperate montane
|primary_river = [[Beas River]], [[Tons River]], [[Alaknanda River]]
|primary_river = Beas River, Tons River, Alaknanda River
|primary_mountains = Pir Panjal Range, Dhauladhar Range, Great Himalayan Range, Mussourie Range, Nag Tibba Range, Shivalik Hills, Zanskar Range, Ladakh Range
|area_extent = ~50,000 km²
|area_extent = ~50,000 km²
|status = Vulnerable
|status = Vulnerable
|coordinates = {{coord|32|00|N|77|30|E|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates = 32.000000, 77.500000
|description = Major Himalayan charas-producing cultivation region across northern India's temperate valleys and highland basins
}}
}}


The '''Western Himalayas''' is a major [[landrace cannabis]] cultivation region spanning the mountain valleys of northern [[India]], encompassing traditional ''[[charas]]'' (hand-rubbed hashish) producing areas in [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]], and parts of [[Jammu and Kashmir]].  
The '''Western Himalayas''' is a major [[landrace cannabis]] cultivation region spanning the mountain valleys of northern [[India]], encompassing traditional ''[[charas]]'' (hand-rubbed hashish) producing areas in [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]] and parts of [[Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name="pmfias">https://www.pmfias.com/himalayas-regional-divisions-punjab-himalayas-assam-himalayas-western-himalayas-central-himalayas-eastern-himalayas/</ref><ref name="archive_gazette">https://archive.org/details/b32222920_0001</ref><ref name="unodc2005">https://www.unodc.org/pdf/india/publications/south_Asia_Regional_Profile_Sept_2005/10_india.pdf</ref><ref name="narcotics2002">https://narcoticsindia.nic.in/Publication/2002.pdf</ref>


The Western Himalayas growing region is characterized by landrace cannabis cultivation in steep valley systems between 500 and 3,500 meters elevation.
In the Western Himalayas, landrace cannabis is cultivated by local communities and also occurs naturalized across steep valley systems from the Himalayan foothills (~300–600 m) through mid-elevation temperate valleys (e.g., Malana, Kullu, 1500 m through 3200 m) to cold-desert basins above 3,000 m; published records extend to ~3,500 m in Lahaul–Spiti.<ref name="demske2016">https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/14541/ThexHolocene-2016-Demske-1661-75.pdf?sequence=1</ref><ref name="uttarakhand_geo">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291116090_Retrospect_and_Prospects_of_Natural_Resource_and_Disaster_Management_in_Uttarakhand_Himalaya_Geo-environmental_Characteristics_Natural_Resources_and_Disasters_in_Uttarakhand_State</ref><ref name="lahaul_tetraploid">https://www.eresearchco.com/articles/abnormal-meiosis-in-tetraploid-4x-cannabis-sativa-l-from-lahaulspiti-cold-desert-higher-altitude-himalayasa-neglected-bu.pdf</ref>


The region's cannabis populations are cultivated primarily for [[charas]] production, with hand-rubbing techniques passed through generations of farming communities.
The region's cannabis populations are cultivated primarily for [[charas]] production, with hand-rubbing techniques passed through generations of farming communities. Cannabis also occupies a central place in the region's religious life, folk medicine, material culture and food traditions, with documented uses spanning Shaivite ritual offerings, fibre processing for textiles and footwear, seed-based cuisine, and a range of traditional medical preparations.<ref name="rathore2018">{{cite journal |last1=Rathore |first1=Sumati |last2=Shashni |first2=Sarla |last3=Samant |first3=Sher Singh |last4=Sundriyal |first4=Rakesh Chand |title=Indigenous uses of wild hemp (Cannabis sativa) by the local inhabitants in Manikaran Valley of Himachal Pradesh, North Western Himalaya |journal=Journal of Non-Timber Forest Products |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=127–130 |year=2018}}</ref><ref name="rani2013">{{cite journal |last1=Rani |first1=Savita |last2=Rana |first2=J.C. |last3=Rana |first3=P.K. |title=Ethnomedicinal plants of Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh, India |journal=Journal of Medicinal Plants Research |volume=7 |issue=42 |pages=3147–3157 |year=2013 |doi=10.5897/JMPR2013.5249}}</ref> Ethnographic fieldwork in the Parvati Valley describes cannabis prior to the expansion of the charas trade as a "humble" object of everyday utility: its use was "so regular, yet ordinary, that people did not find any need to record the uncontroversial practices of its use."<ref name="tribhuvan2018">{{cite journal |last=Tribhuvan |first=Prasenjeet |title=Cannabis and Social Change in the Indian Himalayas |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=504–516 |year=2018 |doi=10.2993/0278-0771-38.4.504}}</ref>


==Geography==
== Geography ==


==Climate==
== Climate ==


== Cultural and Ethnic Context ==
== Demography ==


==Cultivation History==
== Culture ==


== Genetics ==
Cannabis in the Western Himalayas serves overlapping religious, medicinal, material and culinary functions that are documented across multiple districts and ethnic communities. The plant is not merely cultivated for resin production; it is integrated into daily life, seasonal festivals, healing practices and household craft in ways that vary by valley and community but share a common foundation in Shaivite religious tradition and mountain subsistence agriculture. Traditionally, hashish was consumed in social gatherings, smoked in hookahs or chillums alongside cups of tea and snacks, while the plant also assumed a sacred character as a favoured intoxicant of Shiva.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
 
=== Religious practice ===
 
Cannabis holds a revered place in Shaivite Hindu tradition throughout the Western Himalayas. The plant is considered sacred to Lord Shiva and features in both daily worship and festival observance.<ref name="rathore2018" /><ref name="rani2013" /><ref name="tribhuvan2018" /> In the [[Kullu District]], communities prepare ''Ghota'', a drink made from hemp seeds and leaves, as an offering to Lord Shiva during the annual Shivaratri festival. This practice is documented by multiple independent research teams across different years and informant groups: ethnobotanists interviewing village elders in the [[Manikaran Valley]] (2015–2017),<ref name="rathore2018" /> researchers surveying shamans and tantric practitioners in Kullu, Manali and Bhuntar tehsils (2021–2022),<ref name="thakur2023">{{cite journal |last1=Thakur |first1=Smriti |last2=Jamwal |first2=Radhika |last3=Negi |first3=Subodh |title=Ethnobotanical survey of plants used in magico-religious practices in Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh, India |journal=Ethnobotany Research and Applications |volume=25 |pages=1–18 |year=2023 |doi=10.32859/era.25.39.1-18}}</ref> and an earlier ethnobotanical survey in Solan District.<ref name="sharma_sood2013">{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=M. |last2=Sood |first2=S.K. |title=Ethnobotanical survey for wild plants of district Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India |journal=International Journal of Environmental Biology |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=87–95 |year=2013}}</ref> Hemp leaves are also used as offerings in daily Shiva worship throughout the Kullu and Chamba districts.<ref name="rathore2018" /><ref name="rani2013" /> In [[Chamba District]], cannabis is among the plants most commonly offered to Shiva and can be found for sale in shops near temples.<ref name="rani2013" />
 
These local devotional practices connect to a much older textual tradition. The ''Atharva Veda'' (second millennium BC) names ''bhang'' alongside ''Soma'' as one of five sacred plants used "for freedom from distress" (11.6.15) and prescribes the burning of hemp boughs in magical rites (8.8.3).<ref name="aldrich1977">{{cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=Michael R. |title=Tantric Cannabis Use in India |journal=Journal of Psychedelic Drugs |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=227–233 |year=1977 |doi=10.1080/02791072.1977.10472053}}</ref> In the Shaivite ritual context, ''bhang'' is poured over Shiva's stone phallus (the ''lingam'') and consecrated to Kali.<ref name="campbell1894">{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=J.M. |title=Note on the Religion of Hemp |work=Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report |year=1894}}</ref> The Tantric tradition holds that ''[[Tantric cannabis use in India|vijaya]]'' (the cannabis beverage used in ceremonies) represents the ''amrita'' produced by the Churning of the Milk Ocean and was named "victory" because it gave the gods their triumph over the demons.<ref name="aldrich1977" /> Tantric cannabis practice reached its historical peak in medieval Bengal and the Himalayan kingdoms, where cannabis itself came to be called ''siddhi'' (a pun on "occult powers").<ref name="aldrich1977" />
 
For further detail on the Vedic and Tantric dimensions of cannabis in Indian religious practice, see [[Tantric cannabis use in India]].
 
=== Folk medicine ===
 
Ethnobotanical surveys across the Western Himalayas document a consistent set of traditional medical uses for cannabis, with some district-level variation in preparation methods. The most commonly reported applications involve treatment of joint and musculoskeletal pain, wound care and menstrual disorders.
 
In the [[Manikaran Valley]] (Kullu District), fieldwork conducted between 2015 and 2017 recorded five medicinal applications: seed oil (cold-pressed or infused in mustard oil) massaged on arthritic joints at bedtime; dry leaf powder mixed with egg, taken once daily for excessive or prolonged menstrual bleeding; leaf paste applied directly to wounds and sores; leaf paste mixed with cow urine applied to painful joints; and leaves rubbed on stings from wasps, bees and scorpions.<ref name="rathore2018" /> Cancer patients in the valley also reportedly use the seed oil for emergency pain relief by applying it to the affected area.<ref name="rathore2018" />
 
In [[Chamba District]], surveys of Gaddi and Gujjar tribal communities (2010–2012) found cannabis leaves and bark used for joint pain, with the same leaf-paste-and-cow-urine preparation method documented independently in the [[Parvati Valley]].<ref name="rani2013" /> The Chamba study also reported that new medicinal uses of ''Cannabis sativa'' documented in the district could not be found in literature from other parts of India or the world, suggesting locally distinctive ethnopharmacological knowledge.<ref name="rani2013" />
 
Additional medicinal uses documented by Sharma (1977) in villages of Himachal Pradesh include oil from cannabis flowers used to ease muscle pain, particularly menstrual cramps; buds boiled in milk as a treatment for impotency; leaves used as a de-wormer and diuretic for stomach upset and diarrhea; and cannabis used as a means to wean individuals from alcohol consumption, which is considered more harmful locally.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" /><ref name="sharma1977">{{cite journal |last=Sharma |first=G.K. |title=Ethnobotany and its significance for Cannabis studies in the Himalayas |journal=Journal of Psychedelic Drugs |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=337–339 |year=1977}}</ref>
 
=== Material culture ===
 
The hemp fibre tradition in the Western Himalayas involves a multi-stage processing method and yields a range of utilitarian and ceremonial objects. In the Manikaran Valley, full-grown hemp plants are cut and left in the open for approximately one month for dew retting, then placed under running water in a ''kulh'' (traditional irrigation channel) for water retting. Fibres (locally called ''Shel'') are extracted from the bark by hand, either by crushing or beating, then sun-dried.<ref name="rathore2018" />
 
The processed fibre is used to make:
 
* '''''Pullan''''': Traditional lightweight footwear worn during religious ceremonies, within sacred precincts, and for walking on snow. For snow use, the sole is covered with leather. ''Pullan'' are among the most recognised handicrafts of the Kullu valley.<ref name="rathore2018" /> Tribhuvan (2018) independently confirms hemp footwear as a traditional product, noting its durability and ability to withstand harsh climatic conditions.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
* '''''Chikda''''': Bull mouth masks made from hemp fibre, used in local cultural performances.<ref name="rathore2018" />
* '''Hemp fabric coats''': Branches of the plant have traditionally been used to produce hemp fabric for coats to keep warm during harsh winters.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
* '''Ropes and mats''': General-purpose cordage and matting.<ref name="rathore2018" /><ref name="rani2013" />
* '''''Cheuli''''': A form of processed hemp fibre used by women as a non-stick agent for the ''tawa'' (cooking hotplate), applied by scrubbing the fibre against the surface with a small amount of oil.<ref name="rathore2018" />
 
The fibre tradition in Chamba District is documented separately, where cannabis bark is used for rope-making alongside the plant's religious and medicinal roles.<ref name="rani2013" />
 
=== Food and drink ===
 
Hemp seeds (locally ''Mangolu'' in the Kullu valley) are a traditional food ingredient in Western Himalayan cuisine, consumed particularly during winter months.<ref name="rathore2018" /><ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
 
Seeds are roasted until they crackle and pop (necessary to release flavour and soften the coarse hull), then ground in a pestle with garlic, salt and green chilies to produce a condiment used for seasoning vegetables such as ''kachalu'', potato and cauliflower. A chutney is also prepared using hemp seeds with ''dadhu'' (a local variety of pomegranate), green or red chilies, mint leaves, coriander leaves, lemon and salt. Roasted seeds are eaten raw with jaggery or sugar as a snack.<ref name="rathore2018" /> Tribhuvan (2018) independently documents the same seed chutney tradition, noting it is eaten with ''sidhu'', a local bread made of fermented rice, "especially for warmth in winters."<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
 
Two traditional dishes feature hemp seeds as a primary ingredient. ''Siddu'' is a steamed bread filled with the hemp seed condiment. ''Aaksalu'' is prepared by women during the winter season using hemp seeds with wheat and rice flour, cooked in ''patel'' (special stone pots); the dish is made in either sweet (with sugar) or savoury (with salt) versions.<ref name="rathore2018" />
 
Hemp leaves are used in the preparation of ''Dhehli'', an inoculum for ''Sur'' (a traditional alcoholic beverage of Himachal Pradesh). Various herbs are mixed with flour, shaped into a brick and dried between cannabis leaves for one to two months.<ref name="rathore2018" />
 
=== Social consumption ===
 
Beyond religious and medicinal contexts, cannabis has a long tradition of social consumption in the Western Himalayas. Hashish (charas) has traditionally been smoked in social gatherings using hookahs or ''chillums'' (local smoking pipes), accompanied by cups of tea and snacks.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" /> On occasion, cannabis assumes a sacred character in these settings through its association with Shiva, blurring the boundary between social and devotional use.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
 
== Cultivation History ==
 
Cannabis cultivation in the Western Himalayas has deep historical roots, though precise dating of when deliberate cultivation (as opposed to use of wild or feral populations) began in the region remains uncertain. The ''Atharva Veda'' references to ''bhang'' (second millennium BC) confirm the plant's presence in the broader Indo-Aryan cultural sphere from an early period.<ref name="aldrich1977" /> During the late Vedic period, as Aryan populations moved deeper into the Indo-Gangetic plains and lost access to mountain-grown ''Soma'', cannabis emerged as one of several substitute sacred plants, a transition reflected in later mythological narratives.<ref name="aldrich1977" />
 
By the time of Sushruta (approximately 500–600 AD), cannabis was established in the Indian medical pharmacopoeia, described as an antiphlegmatic agent and prescribed for conditions such as catarrh and biliary fever.<ref name="grierson1894">{{cite book |last=Grierson |first=G.A. |title=Note on References to the Hemp Plant Occurring in Sanskrit and Hindi Literature |work=Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report |volume=3 |year=1894 |publisher=Appendices}}</ref> Buddhist monks in the region used it to treat rheumatism.<ref name="davids1882">{{cite book |last1=Davids |first1=T.W.R. |last2=Oldenberg |first2=H. |title=Vinaya Texts (Mahavagga 6.14.3) |edition=Part 2 |location=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1882}}</ref>
 
=== Pre-prohibition baseline ===
 
For centuries, cannabis served as a multi-use subsistence crop in the Western Himalayas, its cultivation and consumption integrated into everyday agricultural life. Tribhuvan (2018), drawing on fourteen months of ethnographic fieldwork in the Parvati Valley, describes the pre-prohibition baseline as one in which cannabis and its parts were used for food, clothing and social enjoyment, historically subsumed within the socio-cultural life of the region as a "humble object of great utility, but hardly influential."<ref name="tribhuvan2018" /> The plant's versatility, encompassing resin production, textile fibre, rope, medicinal preparations and food, sustained its economic importance across generations.<ref name="sharma_manjul2024">{{cite journal |last1=Sharma Manjul |first1=Anshul |last2=Sharma |first2=Parveen Prabha |last3=Lata |first3=Charu |title=Cannabis Chronicles: Unveiling Himachal Pradesh's Green Secret |journal=Just Agriculture |volume=5 |issue=2 |year=2024 |issn=2582-8223}}</ref>
 
=== Prohibition and the NDPS Act ===
 
Cannabis remained legally available for sale in India until 1985. The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission of 1893 had deemed moderate cannabis use acceptable, and no specific national legislation targeted cannabis cultivation until the late twentieth century. Following the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961, India faced sustained international pressure to regulate cannabis; it resisted for nearly 25 years before the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act came into force on 14 November 1985, criminalising the production, circulation and consumption of cannabis and its products across the country.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" /><ref name="jothieswari2023">{{cite journal |last1=Jothieswari |first1=D. |last2=Bindu |first2=D.H. |last3=Nelavala |first3=A. |title=Deciphering the narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances act of 1985 and its enforcement guidelines in India |journal=Future Journal of Pharmaceuticals and Health Sciences |year=2023}}</ref>
 
=== Contemporary cultivation and the charas economy ===
 
Despite prohibition, cannabis cultivation persists across the Western Himalayas, driven by economic necessity and the absence of comparably profitable alternatives in remote mountain communities.<ref name="sharma_manjul2024" /> In the Parvati Valley, ethnographic research found that all households in the study villages were involved in some aspect of cannabis cultivation, charas production or trade. Charas income increased household earnings by 50 to 100 percent, and in many cases equalled or exceeded income from horticulture, guesthouses and other "primary" livelihood sources.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />
 
Cannabis is typically cultivated on state forestland at higher altitudes above the villages, rather than on family agricultural land. This arrangement is significant because it allows communities without large hereditary landholdings, including lower-caste families, to participate in cultivation on an equal footing. Tribhuvan (2018) documents cases in which lower-caste families used charas income to build guesthouses, purchase homes and enter trades that had previously been inaccessible due to limited resources and caste-based occupational restrictions.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />


No data at present, further research needed.  
The economic transformation has been accompanied by social costs. In 2012, the Kullu District police recorded 510 cases under the NDPS Act, of which 143 involved local residents. In the study villages, substantial numbers of young men were serving prison sentences for commercial-quantity charas offences, with significant consequences for families and village social structures. Cannabis-driven tourism has also introduced substances such as cocaine, heroin, MDMA and ketamine into the valley, contributing to addiction problems among local youth.<ref name="tribhuvan2018" />


==Growing Areas and Sub-Regions==
== Genetics ==
No data at present, further research needed.


== Growing Areas ==
The Western Himalayas growing region encompasses numerous documented cultivation areas. Browse by administrative division:
The Western Himalayas growing region encompasses numerous documented cultivation areas. Browse by administrative division:


===Himachal Pradesh===
=== Himachal Pradesh ===


====[[Kullu District]]====
==== [[Kullu District]] ====
{{main|Kullu}}
The Kullu District contains the highest concentration of documented growing areas in the Western Himalayas:
The Kullu District contains the highest concentration of documented growing areas in the Western Himalayas:


* [[Banjar Valley]]  
* [[Tirthan Valley]]
* [[Janjehli Valley]]  
* [[Janjehli Valley]]
* [[Kullu Valley]]
* [[Kullu Valley]]
* [[Lug Valley]]
* [[Lug Valley]]
Line 50: Line 120:
* [[Parvati Valley]]
* [[Parvati Valley]]
* [[Sainj Valley]]
* [[Sainj Valley]]
* [[Seraj Valley]]
* [[Inner Seraj]]
* [[Outer Seraj]]


====[[Kinnaur District]]====
==== [[Mandi District]] ====
{{main|Kinnaur}}
* [[Seraj]]
High-altitude region near the Tibet border.


====[[Lahaul and Spiti District]]====
==== [[Kinnaur District]] ====
Cold desert region with limited cultivation at very high elevations (3,000–3,800m).
* [[Lower Sutlej Valley]]
* [[Middle Sutlej Valley]]
* [[Baspa Valley]]


====[[Sirmaur District]]====
==== [[Lahaul and Spiti District]] ====
Southern district with scattered cultivation areas, less documented than northern regions.
Due to the harsh climate and short growing season, as of 2015 there is sparse evidence of current, intentional cannabis cultivation in Lahaul and Spiti districts. There are, however, feral, self-seeding cannabis populations found near roadsides, rivers and temples throughout the district.<ref name="lahaul_tetraploid" />


===Uttarakhand===
* [[Trilokinath]]
* [[Udaipur]]
* [[Keylong]]
* [[Darcha]]
* [[Batal]]
* [[Kaza]]
* [[Losar]]


====[[Garhwal Division]]====
==== [[Chamba District]] ====
Western Uttarakhand, including:
Ethnobotanical surveys of Gaddi and Gujjar tribal communities in Chamba document cannabis use across multiple localities including Banikhat, Bhalai, Brangal, Brahmaur, Chamba, Chaurah, Chuari Khas, Dalhousie, Harsear, Holi, Saluni, Sinhunta and Tissa.<ref name="rani2013" />
* [[Nanda Devi]] region
* [[Niti Valley]]


==== [[Sirmaur District]] ====


====[[Kumaon Division]]====
==== [[Shimla District]] ====
Eastern Uttarakhand, including:
* [[Busahr]]
* [[Johar Valley]]
* [[Pabbar Valley]]
* [[Darma Valley]]
* [[Kotkhai Valley]]
* [[Jubbal Valley]]
* [[Chaupal Valley]]


===Jammu and Kashmir===
=== Uttarakhand ===


No data at present, further research needed.
==== [[Garhwal Division]] ====
* [[Nanda Devi]]
* [[Niti Valley]]


====Ladakh====
==== [[Kumaon Division]] ====
''High-altitude cold desert region with limited cultivation''
* [[Johar Valley]]
* [[Darma Valley]]
* [[Gori Valley]]
* [[Saur Valley]]
* [[Munsyari]]
* [[Bona (Bauna)]]
* [[Darchula]]


==Botanical Characteristics==
=== Jammu and Kashmir ===
No data at present, further research needed.


===Regional Traits===
==== Ladakh ====
High-altitude cold desert region with limited cultivation.


===Geographic Variation===
=== All documented Growing Areas ===
{{#ask:
[[Category:Growing Areas]]
[[Has growing region::{{PAGENAME}}]]
|mainlabel=Growing Area
|format=table
|default=No growing areas documented yet.
}}


===Other Variations===
== Accessions ==
{{#ask:
[[Category:Accessions]]
[[Has growing region::{{PAGENAME}}]]
|?Has descriptive name=Name
|?Has conservation priority=Priority
|?Has collection date=Collected
|?Has locality=Locality
|mainlabel=Accession ID
|format=table
|class=wikitable sortable
|sort=Has collection date
|order=desc
|default=No accessions documented yet.
}}


==Cultivation Practices==
== Botanical Characteristics ==
=== Regional Traits ===
=== Geographic Variation ===


===Traditional Methods===
== Cultivation Practices ==
=== Traditional Methods ===
=== Modern Methods ===


===Modern Methods===
== Conservation Status ==
=== Threats to Landrace Populations ===
=== Conservation Efforts ===


==Conservation Status==
== Chemical Profile ==
 
=== Cannabinoid Content ===
===Threats to Landrace Populations===
 
===Conservation Efforts===
 
==Chemical Profile==
 
===Cannabinoid Content===
Western Himalayas populations are traditionally drug-type cannabis, selected for resin production. Research is needed to characterize chemical profiles.
Western Himalayas populations are traditionally drug-type cannabis, selected for resin production. Research is needed to characterize chemical profiles.


==Gallery==
== Gallery ==
 
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Parvati-Valley-View.jpg|Parvati Valley cultivation area
File:Parvati-Valley-View.jpg|Parvati Valley cultivation area
Line 119: Line 227:
</gallery>
</gallery>


==See Also==
== See Also ==
* [[Gene pools]]
* [[Gene pools]]
* [[South Asian Gene Pool]]
* [[South Asian Gene Pool]]
Line 125: Line 233:
* [[Landrace cannabis]]
* [[Landrace cannabis]]
* [[Charas]]
* [[Charas]]
* [[Traditional cultivation practices]]
* [[India]]
* [[Conservation status]]
* [[Tantric cannabis use in India]]
* [[Himalayan agriculture]]


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==External Links==
* [Link to relevant botanical databases]
* [Link to conservation organizations]
* [Link to genetic research papers]
[[Category:Growing Regions]]
[[Category:South Asian Growing Regions]]
[[Category:South Asian Growing Regions]]
[[Category:Himalayan Cannabis]]
[[Category:Traditional Agriculture]]
[[Has gene pool::South Asian Gene Pool]]
[[Has regional complex::Hindu Kush-Himalayan]]
[[Has country::India]]

Latest revision as of 19:53, 17 March 2026

Western Himalayas
View of the Parvati Valley in Kullu District
View of the Parvati Valley in Kullu District
⛶
Location

India

Coordinates 32.000000, 77.500000
Gene Pool South Asian Gene Pool
Regional Complex Hindu Kush-Himalayan
Country India
Provinces/States Himachal Pradesh,Uttarakhand,Jammu and Kashmir
Elevation Range 500–3,500 m
Area ~50,000 km²
Climate Temperate montane
Primary Rivers Beas River,Tons River,Alaknanda River
Primary Mountains Pir Panjal Range,Dhauladhar Range,Great Himalayan Range,Mussourie Range,Nag Tibba Range,Shivalik Hills,Zanskar Range,Ladakh Range
Conservation Status Vulnerable






The Western Himalayas is a major landrace cannabis cultivation region spanning the mountain valleys of northern India, encompassing traditional charas (hand-rubbed hashish) producing areas in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and parts of Jammu and Kashmir.[1][2][3][4]

In the Western Himalayas, landrace cannabis is cultivated by local communities and also occurs naturalized across steep valley systems from the Himalayan foothills (~300–600 m) through mid-elevation temperate valleys (e.g., Malana, Kullu, 1500 m through 3200 m) to cold-desert basins above 3,000 m; published records extend to ~3,500 m in Lahaul–Spiti.[5][6][7]

The region's cannabis populations are cultivated primarily for charas production, with hand-rubbing techniques passed through generations of farming communities. Cannabis also occupies a central place in the region's religious life, folk medicine, material culture and food traditions, with documented uses spanning Shaivite ritual offerings, fibre processing for textiles and footwear, seed-based cuisine, and a range of traditional medical preparations.[8][9] Ethnographic fieldwork in the Parvati Valley describes cannabis prior to the expansion of the charas trade as a "humble" object of everyday utility: its use was "so regular, yet ordinary, that people did not find any need to record the uncontroversial practices of its use."[10]

Geography

Climate

Demography

Culture

Cannabis in the Western Himalayas serves overlapping religious, medicinal, material and culinary functions that are documented across multiple districts and ethnic communities. The plant is not merely cultivated for resin production; it is integrated into daily life, seasonal festivals, healing practices and household craft in ways that vary by valley and community but share a common foundation in Shaivite religious tradition and mountain subsistence agriculture. Traditionally, hashish was consumed in social gatherings, smoked in hookahs or chillums alongside cups of tea and snacks, while the plant also assumed a sacred character as a favoured intoxicant of Shiva.[10]

Religious practice

Cannabis holds a revered place in Shaivite Hindu tradition throughout the Western Himalayas. The plant is considered sacred to Lord Shiva and features in both daily worship and festival observance.[8][9][10] In the Kullu District, communities prepare Ghota, a drink made from hemp seeds and leaves, as an offering to Lord Shiva during the annual Shivaratri festival. This practice is documented by multiple independent research teams across different years and informant groups: ethnobotanists interviewing village elders in the Manikaran Valley (2015–2017),[8] researchers surveying shamans and tantric practitioners in Kullu, Manali and Bhuntar tehsils (2021–2022),[11] and an earlier ethnobotanical survey in Solan District.[12] Hemp leaves are also used as offerings in daily Shiva worship throughout the Kullu and Chamba districts.[8][9] In Chamba District, cannabis is among the plants most commonly offered to Shiva and can be found for sale in shops near temples.[9]

These local devotional practices connect to a much older textual tradition. The Atharva Veda (second millennium BC) names bhang alongside Soma as one of five sacred plants used "for freedom from distress" (11.6.15) and prescribes the burning of hemp boughs in magical rites (8.8.3).[13] In the Shaivite ritual context, bhang is poured over Shiva's stone phallus (the lingam) and consecrated to Kali.[14] The Tantric tradition holds that vijaya (the cannabis beverage used in ceremonies) represents the amrita produced by the Churning of the Milk Ocean and was named "victory" because it gave the gods their triumph over the demons.[13] Tantric cannabis practice reached its historical peak in medieval Bengal and the Himalayan kingdoms, where cannabis itself came to be called siddhi (a pun on "occult powers").[13]

For further detail on the Vedic and Tantric dimensions of cannabis in Indian religious practice, see Tantric cannabis use in India.

Folk medicine

Ethnobotanical surveys across the Western Himalayas document a consistent set of traditional medical uses for cannabis, with some district-level variation in preparation methods. The most commonly reported applications involve treatment of joint and musculoskeletal pain, wound care and menstrual disorders.

In the Manikaran Valley (Kullu District), fieldwork conducted between 2015 and 2017 recorded five medicinal applications: seed oil (cold-pressed or infused in mustard oil) massaged on arthritic joints at bedtime; dry leaf powder mixed with egg, taken once daily for excessive or prolonged menstrual bleeding; leaf paste applied directly to wounds and sores; leaf paste mixed with cow urine applied to painful joints; and leaves rubbed on stings from wasps, bees and scorpions.[8] Cancer patients in the valley also reportedly use the seed oil for emergency pain relief by applying it to the affected area.[8]

In Chamba District, surveys of Gaddi and Gujjar tribal communities (2010–2012) found cannabis leaves and bark used for joint pain, with the same leaf-paste-and-cow-urine preparation method documented independently in the Parvati Valley.[9] The Chamba study also reported that new medicinal uses of Cannabis sativa documented in the district could not be found in literature from other parts of India or the world, suggesting locally distinctive ethnopharmacological knowledge.[9]

Additional medicinal uses documented by Sharma (1977) in villages of Himachal Pradesh include oil from cannabis flowers used to ease muscle pain, particularly menstrual cramps; buds boiled in milk as a treatment for impotency; leaves used as a de-wormer and diuretic for stomach upset and diarrhea; and cannabis used as a means to wean individuals from alcohol consumption, which is considered more harmful locally.[10][15]

Material culture

The hemp fibre tradition in the Western Himalayas involves a multi-stage processing method and yields a range of utilitarian and ceremonial objects. In the Manikaran Valley, full-grown hemp plants are cut and left in the open for approximately one month for dew retting, then placed under running water in a kulh (traditional irrigation channel) for water retting. Fibres (locally called Shel) are extracted from the bark by hand, either by crushing or beating, then sun-dried.[8]

The processed fibre is used to make:

  • Pullan: Traditional lightweight footwear worn during religious ceremonies, within sacred precincts, and for walking on snow. For snow use, the sole is covered with leather. Pullan are among the most recognised handicrafts of the Kullu valley.[8] Tribhuvan (2018) independently confirms hemp footwear as a traditional product, noting its durability and ability to withstand harsh climatic conditions.[10]
  • Chikda: Bull mouth masks made from hemp fibre, used in local cultural performances.[8]
  • Hemp fabric coats: Branches of the plant have traditionally been used to produce hemp fabric for coats to keep warm during harsh winters.[10]
  • Ropes and mats: General-purpose cordage and matting.[8][9]
  • Cheuli: A form of processed hemp fibre used by women as a non-stick agent for the tawa (cooking hotplate), applied by scrubbing the fibre against the surface with a small amount of oil.[8]

The fibre tradition in Chamba District is documented separately, where cannabis bark is used for rope-making alongside the plant's religious and medicinal roles.[9]

Food and drink

Hemp seeds (locally Mangolu in the Kullu valley) are a traditional food ingredient in Western Himalayan cuisine, consumed particularly during winter months.[8][10]

Seeds are roasted until they crackle and pop (necessary to release flavour and soften the coarse hull), then ground in a pestle with garlic, salt and green chilies to produce a condiment used for seasoning vegetables such as kachalu, potato and cauliflower. A chutney is also prepared using hemp seeds with dadhu (a local variety of pomegranate), green or red chilies, mint leaves, coriander leaves, lemon and salt. Roasted seeds are eaten raw with jaggery or sugar as a snack.[8] Tribhuvan (2018) independently documents the same seed chutney tradition, noting it is eaten with sidhu, a local bread made of fermented rice, "especially for warmth in winters."[10]

Two traditional dishes feature hemp seeds as a primary ingredient. Siddu is a steamed bread filled with the hemp seed condiment. Aaksalu is prepared by women during the winter season using hemp seeds with wheat and rice flour, cooked in patel (special stone pots); the dish is made in either sweet (with sugar) or savoury (with salt) versions.[8]

Hemp leaves are used in the preparation of Dhehli, an inoculum for Sur (a traditional alcoholic beverage of Himachal Pradesh). Various herbs are mixed with flour, shaped into a brick and dried between cannabis leaves for one to two months.[8]

Social consumption

Beyond religious and medicinal contexts, cannabis has a long tradition of social consumption in the Western Himalayas. Hashish (charas) has traditionally been smoked in social gatherings using hookahs or chillums (local smoking pipes), accompanied by cups of tea and snacks.[10] On occasion, cannabis assumes a sacred character in these settings through its association with Shiva, blurring the boundary between social and devotional use.[10]

Cultivation History

Cannabis cultivation in the Western Himalayas has deep historical roots, though precise dating of when deliberate cultivation (as opposed to use of wild or feral populations) began in the region remains uncertain. The Atharva Veda references to bhang (second millennium BC) confirm the plant's presence in the broader Indo-Aryan cultural sphere from an early period.[13] During the late Vedic period, as Aryan populations moved deeper into the Indo-Gangetic plains and lost access to mountain-grown Soma, cannabis emerged as one of several substitute sacred plants, a transition reflected in later mythological narratives.[13]

By the time of Sushruta (approximately 500–600 AD), cannabis was established in the Indian medical pharmacopoeia, described as an antiphlegmatic agent and prescribed for conditions such as catarrh and biliary fever.[16] Buddhist monks in the region used it to treat rheumatism.[17]

Pre-prohibition baseline

For centuries, cannabis served as a multi-use subsistence crop in the Western Himalayas, its cultivation and consumption integrated into everyday agricultural life. Tribhuvan (2018), drawing on fourteen months of ethnographic fieldwork in the Parvati Valley, describes the pre-prohibition baseline as one in which cannabis and its parts were used for food, clothing and social enjoyment, historically subsumed within the socio-cultural life of the region as a "humble object of great utility, but hardly influential."[10] The plant's versatility, encompassing resin production, textile fibre, rope, medicinal preparations and food, sustained its economic importance across generations.[18]

Prohibition and the NDPS Act

Cannabis remained legally available for sale in India until 1985. The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission of 1893 had deemed moderate cannabis use acceptable, and no specific national legislation targeted cannabis cultivation until the late twentieth century. Following the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961, India faced sustained international pressure to regulate cannabis; it resisted for nearly 25 years before the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act came into force on 14 November 1985, criminalising the production, circulation and consumption of cannabis and its products across the country.[10][19]

Contemporary cultivation and the charas economy

Despite prohibition, cannabis cultivation persists across the Western Himalayas, driven by economic necessity and the absence of comparably profitable alternatives in remote mountain communities.[18] In the Parvati Valley, ethnographic research found that all households in the study villages were involved in some aspect of cannabis cultivation, charas production or trade. Charas income increased household earnings by 50 to 100 percent, and in many cases equalled or exceeded income from horticulture, guesthouses and other "primary" livelihood sources.[10]

Cannabis is typically cultivated on state forestland at higher altitudes above the villages, rather than on family agricultural land. This arrangement is significant because it allows communities without large hereditary landholdings, including lower-caste families, to participate in cultivation on an equal footing. Tribhuvan (2018) documents cases in which lower-caste families used charas income to build guesthouses, purchase homes and enter trades that had previously been inaccessible due to limited resources and caste-based occupational restrictions.[10]

The economic transformation has been accompanied by social costs. In 2012, the Kullu District police recorded 510 cases under the NDPS Act, of which 143 involved local residents. In the study villages, substantial numbers of young men were serving prison sentences for commercial-quantity charas offences, with significant consequences for families and village social structures. Cannabis-driven tourism has also introduced substances such as cocaine, heroin, MDMA and ketamine into the valley, contributing to addiction problems among local youth.[10]

Genetics

No data at present, further research needed.

Growing Areas

The Western Himalayas growing region encompasses numerous documented cultivation areas. Browse by administrative division:

Himachal Pradesh

Kullu District

The Kullu District contains the highest concentration of documented growing areas in the Western Himalayas:

Mandi District

Kinnaur District

Lahaul and Spiti District

Due to the harsh climate and short growing season, as of 2015 there is sparse evidence of current, intentional cannabis cultivation in Lahaul and Spiti districts. There are, however, feral, self-seeding cannabis populations found near roadsides, rivers and temples throughout the district.[7]

Chamba District

Ethnobotanical surveys of Gaddi and Gujjar tribal communities in Chamba document cannabis use across multiple localities including Banikhat, Bhalai, Brangal, Brahmaur, Chamba, Chaurah, Chuari Khas, Dalhousie, Harsear, Holi, Saluni, Sinhunta and Tissa.[9]

Sirmaur District

Shimla District

Uttarakhand

Garhwal Division

Kumaon Division

Jammu and Kashmir

No data at present, further research needed.

Ladakh

High-altitude cold desert region with limited cultivation.

All documented Growing Areas

Growing Area
Kullu Valley

Accessions

Accession IDNamePriorityCollectedLocality
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250004Karmi General Population 2024Medium10 December 2025Karmi
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250014Kali Valley 'Pangla Village' Feral Seleciton 2025Medium9 December 2025Pangla
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250015Kali Valley 'Bung Bung Village' Feral Selection 2025Medium9 December 2025Bung Bung
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250013Jumma Village General PopulationMedium9 December 2025Jumma
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250010Saur Valley Jajardewal General Population 2024Medium9 November 2025Jajardewal
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250011Saur Valley Jajardewal Selection 2025Medium9 November 2025Jajardewal
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250012Saur Valley Chatkeshwar Temple General Population 2024Medium9 November 2025Chatkeshwar
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250009Saur Valley Bharkatia General Population 2024Medium9 November 2025Bharkatia
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250015Grahan Kutla 'Tangy' Selection 2025Medium29 October 2025Grahan
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250020Lapas Village General Population 2025Medium29 October 2025Lapas
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250011Thunja Deepack General Population #3 2025Medium29 October 2025Thunja
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250016Grahan Village General Population #2 2025Medium29 October 2025Grahan
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250007Thunja Village General Population #1 2025Medium29 October 2025Thunja
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250012Grahan Kutla Lower Terrace Selection 2025Medium29 October 2025Grahan
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250017Grahan Village General Population #3 2025Medium29 October 2025Grahan
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250008Thunja Village General Population #2 2025Medium29 October 2025Thunja
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250013Grahan Kutla Middle Terrace Selection 2025Medium29 October 2025Grahan
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250018Tosh Village General Population #1 2025Medium29 October 2025Tosh
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250009Thunja Deepack General Population #1 2025Medium29 October 2025Thunja
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250014Grahan Kutla Forest Selection 2025Medium29 October 2025Grahan
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250019Tosh Village General Population #2 2025Medium29 October 2025Tosh
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250010Thunja Deepack General Population #2 2025Medium29 October 2025Thunja
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250017Lambagad General Population #118 October 2025Lambagad
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250018Lambagad General Population #218 October 2025Lambagad
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250005Atolang Black Selection #1 2025Medium16 October 2025Atolang
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250016Niti Valley General Population 202516 October 2025
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250006Atolang Black Selection #2 2025Medium16 October 2025Atolang
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250004Atolang Green Mango Selection 2025Medium16 October 2025Atolang
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250001Rasol 'Vairam' General Population #1 2025Medium14 October 2025Rasol
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250002Rasol Pawan Selection 2025Medium14 October 2025Rasol
ZOM-IND-HIM-1020250003Rasol Maya Selection 2025Medium14 October 2025Rasol
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250011ATeekh General Population 2024 Grade AMedium13 October 2025Teekh
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250015Niti Village General Population 202413 October 2025Niti
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250006Khati Feral Selection #1 2025Low13 October 2025Khati
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250011BTeekh General Population 2024 Grade BMedium13 October 2025Teekh
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250007Khati Feral Selection #2 2025Low13 October 2025Khati
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250012Dhoor General Population 202413 October 2025Dhoor
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250008Khati Feral Selection #3 2025Low13 October 2025Khati
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250010AKhati General Population2024 #3 Grade ALow13 October 2025Khati
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250005Khati General Population #1 2024Low13 October 2025Khati
ZOM-IND-UTT-1020250003Jhopra Goan General Population 2024Medium10 October 2025Jhopra Gaon
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250005Lohaghat General Population 2024 #1Low9 October 2025Lohaghat
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250006Lohaghat General Population 2024 #2Low9 October 2025Lohaghat
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250007Lohaghat General Population 2024 #3Low9 October 2025Lohaghat
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250008Champawat General Population 2024Medium9 October 2025Champawat
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250004Khauna Malak General Population 2024Medium9 October 2025Kauna Malak
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250036Martoli Village Glacier Selection 2025Medium29 September 2025Martoli
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250033Burphu Village Feral Glacier Selection 2025Medium28 September 2025Burphu
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250034Burphu Village Glacier Selection 2024Medium28 September 2025Burphu
ZOM-IND-UTT-0920250035Bilju Village Feral Glacier Selection 2025Medium28 September 2025Bilju
... further results

Botanical Characteristics

Regional Traits

Geographic Variation

Cultivation Practices

Traditional Methods

Modern Methods

Conservation Status

Threats to Landrace Populations

Conservation Efforts

Chemical Profile

Cannabinoid Content

Western Himalayas populations are traditionally drug-type cannabis, selected for resin production. Research is needed to characterize chemical profiles.

See Also

References

  1. ↑ https://www.pmfias.com/himalayas-regional-divisions-punjab-himalayas-assam-himalayas-western-himalayas-central-himalayas-eastern-himalayas/
  2. ↑ https://archive.org/details/b32222920_0001
  3. ↑ https://www.unodc.org/pdf/india/publications/south_Asia_Regional_Profile_Sept_2005/10_india.pdf
  4. ↑ https://narcoticsindia.nic.in/Publication/2002.pdf
  5. ↑ https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/14541/ThexHolocene-2016-Demske-1661-75.pdf?sequence=1
  6. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291116090_Retrospect_and_Prospects_of_Natural_Resource_and_Disaster_Management_in_Uttarakhand_Himalaya_Geo-environmental_Characteristics_Natural_Resources_and_Disasters_in_Uttarakhand_State
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 https://www.eresearchco.com/articles/abnormal-meiosis-in-tetraploid-4x-cannabis-sativa-l-from-lahaulspiti-cold-desert-higher-altitude-himalayasa-neglected-bu.pdf
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 Template:Cite journal
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 Template:Cite journal
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 Template:Cite journal
  11. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  12. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Template:Cite journal
  14. ↑ Template:Cite book
  15. ↑ Template:Cite journal
  16. ↑ Template:Cite book
  17. ↑ Template:Cite book
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Template:Cite journal
  19. ↑ Template:Cite journal
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