View source for Cambodia

{{Infobox Country
|country_name = Cambodia
|local_name = កម្ពុជា (Kampuchea)
|flag = Flag of Cambodia.jpg
|capital = Phnom Penh
|continent = Asia
|gene_pool = Southeast Asian
|legal_status = Illegal
|legal_status_class = illegal
|legal_status_year = 1996
|enforcement = Active eradication campaigns
}}

'''Cambodia''' (កម្ពុជា, ''Kampuchea'') is home to one of the oldest and most deeply integrated cannabis cultures in Southeast Asia. For centuries, cannabis, known in Khmer as '''គញ្ជា''' (''kaanhcha''), was a routine part of daily life: a condiment roasted into [[Cannabis in Khmer Cuisine|chicken soup]], a remedy prescribed by [[Cannabis in Khmer Medicine|traditional healers]] for ailments from malaria to difficult childbirth and a social ritual shared on straw mats after the evening meal.<ref name="martin1975">Martin, Marie Alexandrine. "Ethnobotanical Aspects of Cannabis in Southeast Asia." In Vera Rubin (ed.), ''Cannabis and Culture''. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 1975, pp. 63–76.</ref> The ethnobotanist Marie Alexandrine Martin conducted the last systematic [[fieldwork]] before the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer%20Rouge Khmer Rouge] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Kampuchea period] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_genocide destroyed] much of Cambodia's traditional knowledge. Martin found cannabis growing in household gardens across the country, sold freely in every market and regarded by Khmer people as: ''"a plant that is socially beneficial."''<ref name="martin1975" /> 

[[Cannabis cultivation]] was formally prohibited by royal edict in 1955, but the ban was so thoroughly ignored that open retail sale continued for four decades.<ref name="martin1975" /> Effective enforcement came only in December 1996, when the Cambodian parliament passed a US-drafted drug law under heavy American diplomatic pressure driven by concerns over heroin trafficking, not cannabis.<ref name="clinton">William J. Clinton. "Letter to Congressional Leaders on Major Narcotics Producing and Transit Countries." White House Office of the Press Secretary, 22 February 1996. [https://clintonwhitehouse6.archives.gov/1996/02/1996-02-22-major-illicit-drug-producing-and-transit-countries.html]</ref><ref name="ppp1996law">"Drug law passed as critics cry foul." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 20 December 1996. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/drug-law-passed-critics-cry-foul]</ref> The law classified cannabis in the most restrictive category alongside heroin, criminalising a crop that had been part of [[Cannabis_in_Khmer_Cuisine|Khmer cuisine]] and [[Cannabis in Khmer Medicine|medicine]] for generations.{{Citation needed}}

Today, cultivation persists in the mountains of [[Kirivong district]] in [[Takeo province]], where annual [[Eradication campaigns|eradication campaigns]] destroy tens of thousands of plants yet multi-generational growing continues.<ref name="phannara2021">Khouth Sophak Chakrya. "Officers told to tackle marijuana cultivation." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 6 December 2021. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/officers-told-tackle-marijuana-cultivation]</ref> Cambodia was identified in 1997 as the second-largest source of seized cannabis in Europe, behind only Colombia.<ref name="gilboa">Amit Gilboa. "Cannabis Cambodia: Smoker's Paradise." ''Cannabis Culture'', 1 November 1998. [https://www.cannabisculture.com/content/1998/11/01/1403/]</ref> The country's landrace cannabis varieties have never been formally characterised or collected and face ongoing threats from [[eradication]], [[genetic contamination]] and the severing of [[traditional agricultural knowledge]].{{Citation needed}}

No systematic [[Cannabis botany|botanical]] study of Cambodian cannabis has ever been conducted. The sole academic botanical identification classifies the Koh Kong cultivar as ''[[Cannabis indica]]'',<ref name="vca">"Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment of Koh Kong and Kampot Provinces, Cambodia." [https://www.academia.edu/101412088/Vulnerability_and_Capacity_Assessment_of_Koh_Kong_and_Kampot_Provinces_Cambodia]</ref> while Martin's observation that French colonial cultivation attempts yielded plants of only 0.6 metres suggests Cambodian populations may represent distinct low-growing varieties adapted to local conditions.<ref name="martin1975" /> What survives in the Bayong Kor mountains and scattered plots across the country may be among the last uncharacterised landraces in Southeast Asia. {{Citation needed}}

== Cannabis in Khmer Culture ==
''Main article: [[Cannabis in Khmer culture]]''

The foundational academic source on traditional cannabis use in Cambodia is the ethnobotanist '''Marie Alexandrine Martin''' (CNRS / École pratique des hautes études), whose fieldwork in Cambodia culminated in a 1975 chapter based on observations made in 1973, the last systematic documentation before the Khmer Rouge period destroyed much of Cambodia's traditional knowledge infrastructure.<ref name="martin1975" /> Martin's earlier monograph, ''Introduction à l'ethnobotanique du Cambodge'' (CNRS, 1971), provides broader botanical context.<ref name="martin1971">Martin, Marie Alexandrine. ''Introduction à l'ethnobotanique du Cambodge''. Paris: Éditions du CNRS (CEDRASEMI), 1971. 257 pp.</ref>

=== Vocabulary and Botany ===

The Khmer name '''kanhcha:''' (គញ្ជា) derives from Sanskrit ''ganja'', with cognates across the region: ''kancha:'' or ''kanhcha:'' in Thai, ''kan xa'' in Lao, ''cän xa'' or ''gai ändö'' ("Indian grass-cloth plant") in Vietnamese. The term '''kali''': used for cannabis seed in Khmer and inflorescences in Thai is of Hindi origin meaning "bud," further supporting introduction from India.<ref name="martin1975" />

Cambodians distinguished male from female plants: '''kanhcha: chmo'.l''' (male, botanical) and '''kanhcha: nhi:''' (female, botanical). Female plants yielded both the preferred smoking material and the seeds used for propagation. Only female plants were smoked; male plants were believed to cause eye disease (''a:c phnek'', rheum), and their lack of resin made them less effective as medicine.<ref name="martin1975" />

=== Culinary Use ===
''Main article: [[Cannabis in Khmer Cuisine]]''

Cannabis leaves and flowers were used extensively as food throughout Southeast Asia. Cannabis soup (''sngao'') was common in Cambodia, "especially ''sngao moan'', flavoured with male or female leaves of kanhcha: that have been roasted." Cannabis was also added to ''sämlä käko:'' and other soups.<ref name="martin1975" /> Martin noted that Chinese soup sold throughout the region incorporated Cannabis stems "in order to induce clients to return", a practice eventually replaced by green tea.<ref name="martin1975" />

"Fresh, they are condiments (''kruiang'') for curry or vegetables (''bänläe'') to accompany vermicelli soup (''inum bänhcok''); they are eaten as vegetables (''änlwak'') in the form of fritters with fish paste (''prähok'')."<ref name="martin1975" /> Martin emphasised that it was "not only the intoxicating power of Cannabis but the pleasant flavor it imparts to food that makes it good to use in cooking."<ref name="martin1975" />

A Khmer journalist confirmed in 1998 that "some people have the custom of eating it in chicken soup in the morning,"<ref name="gilboa" /> and market vendors in 1995 reported that "even cooks in restaurants come to buy it to add to their noodle soup."<ref name="ppp1995">Sou Sophonnara. "Don't sell too much ganja, police tell traders." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 24 March 1995. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/dont-sell-too-much-ganja-police-tell-traders]</ref> Cannabis-flavoured dishes persisted well into the prohibition era through the "happy pizza" phenomenon in tourist-oriented restaurants. {{Citation needed}}

=== Medicinal Use ===
''Main article: [[Cannabis in Khmer Medicine]]''

Martin recorded cannabis as an analgesic "comparable to the opium derivatives" in Traditional Khmer Medicine, noting it "can be added to any relaxant to reinforce its action."<ref name="martin1975" /> The entire plant, male or female was used, with female flowers often added in small amounts "to give the sick person a feeling of well-being." Specific documented applications include:

* '''Appetite restoration''': A glass of Cannabis decoction taken before the two principal meals, generally for one day<ref name="martin1975" />
* '''Polyp removal''': Cannabis smoked with bark of ''Cananga latifolia'' (''chkae sraeng'')<ref name="martin1975" />
* '''Digestion''': Boiled with bark of tepiru (a myrtle) and ''Cinnamomum'' sp. (''sambo lveng''); "a glass is taken before each meal"<ref name="martin1975" />
* '''Post-delivery care''': Infusion of tops from both male and female plants (approximately ten per litre of water) to bring "a feeling of well-being (''sruol khluan'')" to the mother<ref name="martin1975" />
* '''Lactation stimulation''': Concoction of Cannabis, ''Cinnamomum'' sp. stems, and tropical creepers, taken twice daily<ref name="martin1975" />
* '''Additional indications''': Cholera, malaria, dysentery, anorexia, loss of memory, asthma, coughing, dizziness, convulsions, intestinal parasites, and paralysis<ref name="martin1975" />

In Phnom Penh's markets through the 1990s, cannabis was sold at traditional medicine stalls alongside animal skins, herbs, barks, and other remedies as part of the established pharmacopoeia rather than a distinct drug trade in the modern sense.<ref name="gilboa" />

=== Smoking and Social Use ===
''Main article: [[Recreational cannabis in Khmer culture]]''

Cannabis in Southeast Asia was "smoked with no prior treatment at all". That is, no resin extraction or hashish production. The dried plant was cut on a chopping block of '''strychnos wood (''slaeng'')''', as bits of this wood mixed into the Cannabis were believed to constitute a cough remedy and impart a pleasant taste. Cannabis was mixed with tobacco and smoked in paper, maize leaves, ''Combretum quadrangulare'' leaves, or banana leaves; more commonly, it was placed in a '''bamboo water pipe (''rut sey'')'''.<ref name="martin1975" /> Another practice involved boiling Cannabis and sprinkling the juice onto tobacco.<ref name="martin1975" />

Smoking typically began '''around age fifteen''' for males. Women rarely smoked, though Martin observed that "this practice is common, however, among the women of certain northeastern tribes (at least, this is what I have observed in a Bu nong village)."<ref name="martin1975" /> This is a direct 1973 field observation of '''Bunong''' cannabis use in what is now [[Mondulkiri province]], going against modern narratives which claim the Bunong do not use cannabis. {{Citation needed}}

Cannabis smoking was fundamentally social. "After the evening meal, the head of the house lays out a straw mat and invites others to accompany him in his search for euphoria. It is not a question of forgetting one's troubles or escaping from heavy obligations; smoking is to avoid being sad, to experience a feeling of well-being (''sruol khluan'')."<ref name="martin1975" /> Users described the effects: "You are in a drunken mood as with morphine, you are happy, laughing, eating well, you have strength."<ref name="martin1975" /> Cannabis was also consumed before difficult tasks: forest work, jute harvesting etc, to increase endurance and was used to combat cold during the cool season.<ref name="martin1975" />

For the Khmer people, cannabis was "not considered a dangerous product, as opposed to opium, which leads to depravity." Martin concluded that "there is thus nothing surprising in the fact that they consider cannabis to be a plant that is socially beneficial."<ref name="martin1975" />

=== Textiles ===

Martin notably observed that '''Cannabis fibres were not used for textiles''' in Cambodia. 

Quote: ''"completely unknown in Khmer country"''.

No cannabis specimens from Cambodia exist in the herbarium of the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, though specimens from Tonkin and Laos are labelled as "textile plants." Among highland minorities, the Hmong and Nhung ethnic groups of northern Laos and Tonkin made skirts from hemp fibre, reportedly importing textile cannabis from China in the seventeenth century.<ref name="martin1975" /> At the beginning of the French Protectorate, cultivation attempts in southern Indochina yielded plants of only '''0.6 metres''' instead of the expected several metres, and production was halted — a botanical observation suggesting Cambodian cannabis populations may have been distinct low-growing varieties adapted to local conditions.<ref name="martin1975" />

=== The Generational Divide ===

Cannabis use in Cambodia has historically been stratified by generation. A 2004 academic study of drug use in three villages on the outskirts of Battambang town found that among 30 young drug users surveyed (ages 15–25), '''every single one''' used amphetamines (yaba) as their primary drug, not one used cannabis.<ref name="adi2004">"Understanding Drug Use as a Social Issue: A View from Three Villages on the Outskirts of Battambang Town." Analyzing Development Issues (ADI) / Cooperation Committee for Cambodia (CCC), April 2004. [https://www.ccc-cambodia.org/backend/web/uploads/resource/media/Understanding_Drug_Study_Report_En-58ba8c38cd284.pdf]</ref> Young Cambodians viewed cannabis as an "old man's habit" and gravitated instead toward amphetamine-type stimulants associated with modernity and Thai media culture.<ref name="gilboa" /><ref name="adi2004" />

This pattern persists in the modern enforcement record. Officials in Kirivong consistently report that local growers "do not use locally" and that production is entirely for export.<ref name="phannara2021" /> Deputy provincial governor Khan Sokha stated in 2021 that "people in Kirivong district have never used marijuana." {{Citation needed}}

=== Knowledge Destruction ===

Most ancient Khmer medical manuscripts (''sastra''), inscribed on palm leaves, were '''destroyed during the Khmer Rouge period''' (1975–1979), when traditional healers were systematically targeted and eliminated. The National Center for Traditional Medicine (NCTM), established in 2010, has undertaken some reconstruction of surviving knowledge.<ref name="highlife">"The high life." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 27 November 2015. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/post-weekend/high-life]</ref>

== Legal History ==

=== Colonial Indifference ===

Under the French Protectorate (1863–1953), cannabis was never specifically targeted for prohibition despite being nominally covered by the broader Customs and Excises (''Douanes et Régies'') framework that controlled intoxicants across French Indochina.<ref name="martin1975" /> The colonial administration's relationship with intoxicants was fundamentally fiscal: the '''Régie Générale de l'Opium''', established in 1897, generated up to 37% of the entire Indochinese colonial budget through a state monopoly on opium manufacture and sale.<ref name="descours-gatin">Descours-Gatin, Chantal. ''Quand l'opium finançait la colonisation en Indochine: L'élaboration de la régie générale de l'opium (1860–1914)''. Paris: L'Harmattan, 1992.</ref> Cannabis, generating negligible revenue and posing no perceived social threat, attracted no comparable regulatory attention. France's metropolitan '''Law of 12 July 1916''' listed "haschich et ses préparations" as a controlled substance alongside opium and cocaine, but multiple French legal historians confirm this law was barely applied in the colonies, where the state itself was dealing in a listed narcotic.<ref name="yvorel">Yvorel, Jean-Jacques. "De la loi 'Lafarge' à la loi de 1916: Aux origines de la pénalisation des stupéfiants." ''Psychotropes'', vol. 22, no. 2, 2016, pp. 9–34.</ref>

A '''1952 United Nations Narcotics Report''' for Cambodia filed just before independence confirms this colonial-era indifference, stating that "Cambodia has no traffic in dangerous drugs with the exception of opium." Cannabis is not mentioned.<ref name="un1952">United Nations. "Cambodia: Annual Reports of Governments." 1952. [https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1631337/files/E_NR-1952_68-EN.pdf]</ref>

=== Post-Independence: Prohibition on Paper ===

Cambodia has technically had cannabis prohibition on the books since '''1955''' but for four decades it was so comprehensively ignored that open cultivation and free retail sale continued uninterrupted. {{Citation needed}}

Martin (1975) documents two post-independence statutes:<ref name="martin1975" />

* '''Kram No. 10 NS, 30 May 1955''' — A royal edict issued under King Suramarinth (Norodom Suramarit, who held the throne after Sihanouk's abdication) halted all growing of cannabis.
* '''Kret No. 481.72 PRK, 14 July 1972''' — The Khmer Republic (Lon Nol government) created a Bureau of Narcotics in Phnom Penh, which "emphasized the repression of opium traffic and updated complementary clauses relative to Cannabis."

Yet Martin herself, documenting these laws and conducting fieldwork in the same period, observed that "retail sale of the plant is absolutely free in Cambodia and Laos" and that "being in possession of kanhcha: does not constitute an offense; the normal reaction is rather to laugh and wish pleasure to the person who has it."<ref name="martin1975" /> Cannabis was sold openly in markets, grown in household gardens, and integrated into everyday cuisine and medicine. The 1955 prohibition existed only on paper. {{Citation needed}}

No evidence has been found of cannabis-specific legislation during the People's Republic of Kampuchea period (1979–1989). During the Khmer Rouge period (1975–1979), traditional healers were systematically targeted and rice monoculture was imposed, but this was ideological totalitarianism rather than drug regulation. {{Citation needed}}

=== The 1961 Single Convention Myth ===

A widely repeated claim that cannabis became "technically illegal" in Cambodia through the '''1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs''' is substantially misleading. Cambodia signed the Convention on '''30 March 1961''' but did '''not ratify it until 7 July 2005''' - over 44 years later.<ref name="untreaty">United Nations Treaty Collection. "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961: Status of Treaties." [https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/Chapter%20VI/vi-15.en.pdf]</ref> Signing creates only a political commitment; it does not create binding legal obligations to implement provisions domestically. The US State Department's 1998 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report confirmed that Cambodia was still taking steps to become a party to the major UN drug conventions at that date.<ref name="incsr1998">"INCSR 1998: Cambodia." US Department of State. [https://1997-2001.state.gov/global/narcotics_law/1998_narc_report/major/Cambodia.html]</ref> Cambodia completed accession to the 1972 Protocol amending the Convention in September 2007. {{Citation needed}}

=== The UNTAC Code ===

The '''UNTAC transitional criminal code''' (1992–1993) introduced a new framework alongside the existing but unenforced Cambodian statutes, providing for jail terms of 5–15 years for smuggling addictive drugs and 1 month to 1 year for drug users. However, Phnom Penh anti-drug department chief Heng Poev acknowledged in 1995 that the law was "apparently unclear on whether possession or growing of marijuana are also offenses."<ref name="ppp1995" /> His confusion is understandable given the overlapping layers of unenforced prohibition: a 1955 royal edict, a 1972 narcotics bureau decree, and now a UN-drafted criminal code, none of which had ever been applied to cannabis in practice. {{Citation needed}}

=== The 1996 Law on Drug Management ===

While Cambodia had cannabis prohibition on the books since 1955, the '''1996 Law on Drug Management''' was the first statute backed by genuine enforcement intent and driven not by domestic concern but by American geopolitical pressure.

Cambodia's cannabis prohibition is inseparable from the geopolitics of American drug policy. Nate Thayer's November 1995 investigation for the ''Far Eastern Economic Review'' titled "Medellin on the Mekong" framed Cambodia as an emerging narco-state, primarily over heroin transit.<ref name="thayer">Nate Thayer. "Cambodia: Asia's New Narco-State? Medellin on the Mekong." ''Far Eastern Economic Review'', 23 November 1995. [https://natethayer.wordpress.com/1995/11/23/cambodia-asias-new-narco-state-medellin-on-the-mekong/]</ref>

In '''February 1996''', US President Bill Clinton formally added Cambodia to the American list of major illicit drug producing and drug transit countries under Section 490(h) of the Foreign Assistance Act. The letter focused almost exclusively on '''heroin transit''', citing a 71 kg heroin seizure in a speedboat in Koh Kong province — and did not mention cannabis production despite Cambodia's significant export trade.<ref name="clinton" /> Cambodia was dependent on foreign aid for approximately 40% of its national budget, making it highly vulnerable to US policy pressure.<ref name="gilboa" />

On '''9 December 1996''', the National Assembly passed the '''Law on Drug Management''' (''Loi sur la gestion de la drogue'') by a vote of '''84 to 2'''.<ref name="ppp1996law" /> The legislation was drafted by the '''UNDCP''' (United Nations International Drug Control Programme) and reviewed by the US Departments of State and Justice. It classified ''Cannabis indica'' and ''Cannabis sativa'' in '''Table I''': "plants and substances which cause severe dangers but which are not useful for medicine" — the most restrictive category, alongside heroin.<ref name="druglaw">"Law on Drug Control" (English translation). Council for the Development of Cambodia. [https://cdc.gov.kh/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Law-on-Drug-Management_full-text_961209.pdf]</ref>

Contemporary criticism was withering. A human rights lawyer told the ''Phnom Penh Post'' that "many MPs didn't see the logic of or the need for the law" and alleged most voted for it because of pressure from the United States and the UNDCP.<ref name="ppp1996law" /> The law was "rammed through parliament much faster than usual, ahead of other laws which many Cambodians felt had a higher priority."<ref name="gilboa" /> '''Human Rights Watch/Asia''' warned the law "does not sufficiently take into account the current deterioration of the human rights situation in Cambodia."<ref name="ppp1996law" />

The irony was noted by a 2002 ''Cambodia Daily'' investigation, which observed that "worldwide busts have fingered Cambodia's massive cannabis exports" while heroin hauls remained rare and largely unsubstantiated — the opposite of the Clinton letter's framing.<ref name="cdaily2002">"Stung Treng Said to be Busiest Transit Point for Golden Triangle Heroin." ''The Cambodia Daily'', 26 October 2002. [https://english.cambodiadaily.com/2002/10/26/stung-treng-said-to-be-busiest-transit-point-for-golden-triangle-heroin/]</ref> The US government knew of narcotics-related corruption "in government and business circles,"<ref name="clinton" /> yet pressured the same corrupt government to enforce prohibition, creating a system where powerful traffickers were protected while small farmers bore the enforcement burden. The '''1998 INCSR''' confirmed Cambodia was not yet a party to any of the three major UN drug conventions, even as it was being pressed to enforce them.<ref name="incsr1998" />

=== Current Legal Status ===

Under '''Article 38''' of the Law on Drug Control, anyone who intentionally cultivates narcotic plants faces imprisonment of six months to two years and a fine of 1–4 million riel (US$245–975). If the offence is committed for distribution, production, or trade, the penalty increases to two to five years imprisonment with fines of 4–10 million riel (US$975–2,435).<ref name="stungtreng2024">Phak Seangly. "Stung Treng farmers detained for illegal marijuana cultivation." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 25 July 2024. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/stung-treng-farmers-detained-for-illegal-marijuana-cultivation]</ref>

Despite the legal framework, enforcement has historically been '''selective and inconsistent'''. Cannabis is technically classified alongside heroin and methamphetamines,<ref name="siemreap2017">Khouth Sophak Chakrya. "Marijuana bust sees teen jailed." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 30 January 2017. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/marijuana-bust-sees-teen-jailed]</ref> but in practice "authorities often make exceptions for traditional or personal use."<ref name="siemreap2017" /> Small-scale growers are routinely educated and released after signing pledges not to reoffend, while large-scale commercial operations face prosecution, though arrests remain rare even in major eradication operations. {{Citation needed}}

In '''2023–2024''', Prime Minister Hun Manet explicitly rejected foreign proposals for medical cannabis investment, stating: "As long as I remain PM, marijuana investment law will not be implemented." {{Citation needed}}

== Cultivation History ==

=== Post-Khmer Rouge Reconstruction (1980–1991) ===

The earliest documented evidence of large-scale cannabis cultivation comes from the post-Khmer Rouge period. An academic Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment of Koh Kong and Kampot provinces documented cannabis at two coastal communities:<ref name="vca" />

* At '''Koh Kapik''' commune on the Thai border, cannabis was "widely grown from 1980 to 1985" before a 1990s crackdown.
* At '''Koh Sralao''', mountain forest was cut from 1980 to 1990 specifically to plant "Indian Hemp (''Cannabis indica'')" — a practice driven by conflict refugees from other provinces who "moved to Koh Sralao motivated by personal safety" during ongoing civil war.

Cannabis cultivation and timber selling at Koh Sralao ended in 1991 when a ban was introduced and the Ministry of Environment declared the area protected.<ref name="vca" /> This represents the only known academic botanical identification in the Cambodian record thus far classifying the cultivated plant as ''Cannabis indica''.

=== The Thai Investment Era (1992–2002) ===

As Cambodia opened to foreign engagement through the UNTAC period (1992–1993), commercial cannabis cultivation expanded dramatically, fuelled by Thai capital.

In 1996, Phnom Penh anti-drug officer Heng Po identified the investment pattern on camera for Associated Press Television: "They grow it because Thai businessmen came here and gave them money to do it. Especially in Kandal, Koh Kong, and Kampot provinces. They give them money and irrigation machines."<ref name="aptv">"Cambodia: Farmers Turn to Growing Marijuana." Associated Press Television (APTV), 30 April 1996. [https://newsroom.ap.org/editorial-photos-videos/detail?itemid=742e44ed4fbfa682657eddc34399df27]</ref> The APTV footage documented open cannabis fields on "New Island" just outside Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, with irrigation pipes running through banana-intercropped plots. A farmer named Chhe Sambatt, who had been growing for three years, told the camera: "A few years ago no one ever came. It's only this year that they started, so usually I have nothing to fear."<ref name="aptv" />

'''[[Koh Kong province]]''' became the epicentre of commercial production. A 2002 Reuters report described the province as Cambodia's "Wild West" and "a production zone for some of Asia's finest quality marijuana, grown in staggering quantities."<ref name="reuters2002">"Cambodia's Wild West." Reuters, 18 May 2002. [https://www.dawn.com/news/34922/cambodia-s-wild-west]</ref> Drug lords provided farmers with "tools, seeds and fertilizer to grow cannabis in big jungle plantations" and bought the crop back at harvest.<ref name="reuters2002" /> The province had been virtually isolated since the Khmer Rouge cut its roads in the 1970s, accessible only by boat until a bridge to Thailand's Trat province opened in April 2002.

A '''two-tier quality system''' existed: poorly cured bulk cannabis ("hay") sold domestically for as little as US$2–4 per kilogram, while superior export-grade product was channelled through the port cities of [[Sihanoukville]] and Koh Kong to international markets.<ref name="gilboa" /> In 1999, national enforcement under Police Director General Hok Lundy yielded the destruction of 25 marijuana plantations and 1,200 kg of processed cannabis in Koh Kong province alone, alongside over 4 tonnes confiscated in Sihanoukville.<ref name="cdaily2000">"US Report Lists Cambodia." ''The Cambodia Daily'', 3 March 2000. [https://english.cambodiadaily.com/2000/03/03/us-report-lists-cambodia/]</ref>

A 2002 ''Cambodia Daily'' investigation confirmed the scale: "Worldwide busts have fingered Cambodia's massive cannabis exports, but heroin hauls are much less common."<ref name="cdaily2002" />

As enforcement pressure and new road infrastructure reduced Koh Kong's viability as a production zone in the early 2000s, the centre of gravity for cannabis cultivation shifted southeast to '''[[Kirivong district]]''' in [[Takeo province]], near the Vietnamese border. {{Citation needed}}

=== Geographic Shift to Kirivong (2000s–present) ===

''Main article: [[Kirivong Green Triangle]]''

The '''Bayong Kor mountain range''' spans four communes in Kirivong district — Preah Bat Choan Chum, Prey Ampok, Som, and Kiri Chung Koh — and is described in police reports as "ideal for growing marijuana and smuggling to Vietnam."<ref name="bayongkor">Ry Sochan. "Hunt on for Takeo marijuana growers." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 1 June 2021. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/hunt-takeo-marijuana-growers]</ref> Kirivong district police chief Yuk Sarath confirmed in 2017 that "villagers in this commune have grown such plants in their own field for family use, and also for illegal sale to Vietnam and Phnom Penh."<ref name="sarath2017">Khouth Sophak Chakrya. "Field of Dreams: Marijuana crop destroyed in Takeo." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 5 July 2017. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/field-dreams-marijuana-crop-destroyed-takeo]</ref>

Takeo provincial police chief Chheang Phannara stated in December 2021 that growing marijuana in Preah Bat Choan Chum commune "is not a new practice and it has been going on for many generations," attributing its persistence to the local authorities' "lack of will to implement the law."<ref name="phannara2021" /> Commune police chief In Vuth provided the clearest documentation of the local economy: dried marijuana leaves sell for 140,000–160,000 riel (US$35–40) per kilogram to '''Vietnamese traders who come to the commune to buy directly'''.<ref name="phannara2021" />

The scale of Kirivong cultivation is significant. In the first half of 2017 alone, district police destroyed '''134,886 marijuana plants''' and confiscated 272 kg of dried marijuana.<ref name="sarath2017" /> A single operation on 1 February 2020 destroyed '''180,367 plants''' across 24 locations. Between 2019 and mid-2021, police documented 97 operations, burned crops at 443 locations, destroyed 282 water reservoirs, and confiscated 80.5 kg of dried marijuana across a total cultivated area of '''60.97 hectares'''.<ref name="bayongkor" />

Cultivation is characterised by dispersed small plots on remote mountain slopes, concealed through intercropping with cassava, cashew, sesame, and forest trees. Sophisticated irrigation systems including wells, ponds, and piped water supply the plots. Growers typically flee before police arrive, cultivators "live in the forest" during the growing season and replant elsewhere after each raid in what officials describe as a persistent "whack-a-mole" pattern.<ref name="sarun2021">Nov Sivutha. "Police destroy five marijuana farms in Takeo province." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 12 August 2021. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/police-destroy-five-marijuana-farms-takeo-province]</ref>

=== Dispersed Cultivation ===

While Kirivong dominates modern enforcement statistics, cannabis cultivation has been documented across multiple provinces and is often characterised by distinct local patterns.

In '''[[Battambang province]]''', small-scale cultivation in lowland agricultural areas follows an "educate and release" enforcement pattern, with growers citing personal, medicinal, or family use. A 36-year-old man arrested in 2015 with 236 plants said he "grew the plants to use himself and to help treat someone in his family."<ref name="battambang2015">Khouth Sophak Chakrya. "Police free marijuana grower." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 11 August 2015. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/police-free-marijuana-grower]</ref>

The '''[[Cardamom Mountains]]''' corridor spanning [[Pursat province|Pursat]], [[Kampong Speu province|Kampong Speu]], and [[Kampot province|Kampot]] harbours remote cultivation in deep mountain forests. In 2015, 7,637 plants were found hidden among sesame crops across rented land in Pursat's Phnom Kravanh district; the farmer had brought the plants from [[Kandal province]].<ref name="pursat2015">Khouth Sophak Chakrya. "Thousands of marijuana plants seized, burned by Pursat police." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 6 May 2015. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/thousands-marijuana-plants-seized-burned-pursat-police]</ref>

A notable pattern of '''cultivation expertise export''' has been documented: in 2021, a man from Takeo province established a 7,000-plant operation on Bunong indigenous land in '''[[Mondulkiri province]]''', deceiving local landowners who "saw plants they had never seen before" into growing cannabis among their vegetables.<ref name="mondulkiri2021">Orm Bunthoeurn. "Mondulkiri marijuana farm busted." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 5 April 2021. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/mondulkiri-marijuana-farm-busted]</ref> Similarly, the 2015 Pursat operation involved plants sourced from Kandal province.<ref name="pursat2015" /> These cases suggest established growing zones serve as sources of agricultural knowledge that radiate outward as local enforcement pressure increases.

A 2015 seizure of 1,400 kg of dried marijuana in Phnom Penh revealed that the cannabis "was not planted in Cambodia; it is imported from Laos,"<ref name="laos2015">Taing Vida. "Gigantic ganja bust in capital." ''Phnom Penh Post'', 24 August 2015. [https://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/gigantic-ganja-bust-capital]</ref> demonstrating that Cambodia functions as both a producer and a transit/processing point for regional cannabis trade. Industrial drying and packing machines were seized alongside the marijuana, indicating sophisticated processing infrastructure. {{Citation needed}}

== Growing Practices ==

=== Traditional Agronomy ===

Martin documented simple household cultivation in the 1970s: seeds from female plants soaked in water for three days, planted in open ground during the rainy season, harvested dry. Plants reached inflorescence after four to five months, requiring only water and chicken or cattle manure. She observed that "along the river and closer to Vietnam, cultivation of these plants is of greater importance."<ref name="martin1975" />

According to Gilboa, traditional Mekong corridor cultivation involved simply scattering seeds along the riverbanks and allowing the plants to grow unattended.<ref name="gilboa" />

=== Modern Prohibition-Era Cultivation ===

<!-- TO DO: Document modern growing practices in detail
- Kirivong mountain cultivation: remote slopes, irrigation infrastructure, intercropping methods
- Seasonal cycle: dry-season growing, timing relative to eradication campaigns
- Seed sourcing and selection practices
- Processing and drying methods
- Comparison with traditional lowland cultivation
- How prohibition has changed selection pressures (concealment, speed, resilience)
Sources: Field reports, enforcement articles, farmer interviews -->

{{Section stub}}

== Varieties and Genetics ==

No systematic botanical collection, genetic characterisation, or chemotype analysis of Cambodian cannabis landraces has ever been conducted. {{Citation needed}}

=== Botanical Classification ===

The sole academic botanical identification in the Cambodian record found in our {{Who?}} research thus far classifies the Koh Kong cultivar as ''Cannabis indica''.<ref name="vca" /> Martin (1975) distinguished male and female plants by local naming conventions (kanhcha: chmo'.l and kanhcha: nhi:) but did not attempt taxonomic classification beyond the species level.<ref name="martin1975" />

=== Morphology ===

Martin's observation that French colonial cultivation attempts in southern Indochina yielded plants of only '''0.6 metres''' instead of the expected several metres is potentially significant — it suggests Cambodian populations may represent '''distinct low-growing varieties''' adapted to local conditions, a morphological characteristic that has never been formally studied.<ref name="martin1975" />

=== Quality Tiers ===

A two-tier quality system has been documented since at least the 1990s: poorly cured bulk cannabis ("hay") for domestic consumption, and superior export-grade product channelled through port cities to international markets.<ref name="gilboa" /> Koh Kong province was described in 2002 as producing "some of Asia's finest quality marijuana."<ref name="reuters2002" />

In Laos, Martin documented three quality grades based on harvest timing: first quality harvested in winter when covered with dew (the strongest); second quality harvested at other times; and third quality from plants not gathered at the proper time.<ref name="martin1975" /> Whether similar grading practices existed or exist in Cambodia is undocumented. {{Citation needed}}

<!-- TO DO: Document known varieties
- Regional variation: Kirivong, Koh Kong, Cardamom, Battambang — same genetics or distinct?
- Morphological characteristics observed in the field
- Aroma, effect, and quality observations from smoke reports
- Comparison with other Southeast Asian landraces (Thai, Lao, Vietnamese)
- Any evidence of modern hybrid introduction or genetic contamination
- Chemotype data if any exists
Sources: Accession data, field reports, smoke reports -->

{{Section stub}}

== The Market ==

<!-- TO DO: Document the current Cambodian cannabis market
- Structure: farmgate → wholesale → retail; domestic vs export vs tourist
- The "happy pizza" economy: tourist-oriented restaurants in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Kampot, Sihanoukville
- Street-level availability and pricing in major towns
- Vietnamese export market: cross-border trade from Kirivong/Takeo
- Laotian import trade: the 2015 bust showing Cambodia as transit point
- Quality and presentation: what's available, how it's sold, packaging
- Seasonal availability and price fluctuations
- How the market has changed over time (1990s open trade → current underground)
Sources: Field reports, price data, personal observations, enforcement articles -->

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cannabis Price History
|-
! Year !! Price !! Seller !! Location !! Type !! Source
|-
| 1973 || 3,000 riel/kg || Farmgate || Household gardens || Landrace || Martin<ref name="martin1975" />
|-
| 1996 || US$2/kg || Farmgate || Mekong corridor || Landrace || APTV<ref name="aptv" />
|-
| 1995 || US$4/kg || Market retail || Phnom Penh || Landrace || PPPost<ref name="ppp1995" />
|-
| 1998 || US$20/kg || Market retail || Phnom Penh || Landrace || Gilboa<ref name="gilboa" />
|-
| 2021 || US$35–40/kg || Farmgate || Kirivong || Landrace || PPPost<ref name="phannara2021" />
|-
| 2026 || US$500–600/kg || Market Wholesale || Kampot || Landrace || Zomia Collective<ref name="dillon2026">Dillon, Éloïse. Field report (forthcoming). Zomia Collective, 2026.</ref>
|-
| 2026 || US$0.1–1/g || Market Retail || Kampot || Landrace || Zomia Collective<ref name="dillon2026" />
|}

The tenfold increase in farmgate price from the pre-prohibition era to the modern enforcement period illustrates the economic incentive structure created by criminalisation. As commune police chief In Vuth noted, "most people in the commune have grown marijuana on their plantations in the village because of the high market price it fetches."<ref name="phannara2021" />

{{Section stub}}

=== Supply Chain ===

The modern Kirivong supply chain operates as follows:

# Cultivation by villagers, often hired by brokers {{Citation needed}}
# Drying and processing {{Citation needed}}
# Sale to traders who travel to the commune to buy directly at the farm<ref name="phannara2021" />
# Cross-border transport to Vietnam, with secondary domestic distribution to [[Kampot]], [[Sihanoukville]], [[Phnom Penh]] {{Citation needed}}

Trafficking is conducted by motorbike runners carrying loads of approximately 13 kg per trip {{Citation needed}}. One arrested trafficker in 2018 was on her third trip transporting marijuana toward the Vietnamese border {{Citation needed}}.

== Enforcement ==

=== Eradication Campaigns ===

Cambodia conducts annual eradication campaigns primarily targeting [[Kirivong district]], with operations typically intensifying in the early months of each year coinciding with the dry-season growing cycle {{Citation needed}}. The National Authority for Combating Drugs (NACD), established in 1995, coordinates national drug control efforts. {{Citation needed}}

=== Enforcement Challenges ===

Enforcement in the Bayong Kor mountains is constrained by remote, rugged terrain requiring treks of 5 km or more. Commune police chief In Savuth described the tracking methods: "We looked for signs in the forest, footprints and traces of people walking on the rocks."<ref name="bayongkor" /> Cultivators typically flee before police arrive and villagers refuse to identify plot owners. Undercover agents sometimes pose as honey hunters or wildlife foragers to locate farms {{Citation needed}}.

A persistent "whack-a-mole" dynamic characterises enforcement: "When we crack down on marijuana plants in the west, growers secretly plant them in the east because this area is on the Cambodian-Vietnamese border. They are opportunists, but we will continue our clampdowns."<ref name="sarun2021" />

=== Recent News ===

{{#ask:[[Category:News Item]][[Has country::Cambodia]]
|?Has event date=Date
|?Has admin subdivision 1=Province
|?Has event category=Category
|sort=Has event date
|order=desc
|limit=10
|format=broadtable
|class=wikitable sortable
|headers=plain
|mainlabel=Article
|default=No recent news items.
}}

== Growing Regions ==
''Main article: [[Landrace cannabis growing regions of Cambodia]], See also: [[Landrace cannabis growing areas of Cambodia]]''

{{#ask:[[Category:Growing Region]][[Has country::Cambodia]]
|?Has conservation status
|mainlabel=Region
|format=table
|class=wikitable sortable
|default=No growing regions documented yet.
}}

=== Growing Areas ===

{{#ask:[[Category:Growing Area]][[Has country::Cambodia]]
|?Has growing region
|?Has conservation status
|mainlabel=Area
|format=table
|class=wikitable sortable
|default=No growing areas documented yet.
}}

== Conservation Status ==
''Main article: [[Landrace cannabis conservation in Cambodia]]''

Cambodia's traditional cannabis landraces face severe and ongoing threats from multiple vectors:<br>

* '''Eradication campaigns''' : Annual destruction of tens of thousands of plants and associated infrastructure eliminates cultivated populations and disrupts seed saving
* '''Genetic contamination''' : No documentation of modern hybrid introduction, but commercial pressure may favour higher-yielding imported genetics over traditional varieties
* '''Cultural disruption''' : The criminalisation of a multi-generational agricultural practice severs the transmission of traditional cultivation knowledge
* '''Habitat loss''' : Shifting cultivation patterns under enforcement pressure fragment populations into increasingly remote and marginal sites
* '''Knowledge destruction''' : The Khmer Rouge's systematic elimination of traditional healers and destruction of palm-leaf medical manuscripts (''sastra'') {{Citation needed}}

The traditional riverine cultivation described in the 1990s where farmers "scattered the seeds and let it grow" along the Mekong<ref name="gilboa" /> appears to have been entirely eliminated. Modern cultivation is confined to hidden and remote plots with artificial irrigation, representing a fundamental change in the plant's growing environment and the selection pressures acting on it.

{{EradicationMap|country=Cambodia|category=Enforcement|title=Cambodia: Landrace cannabis eradication map|height=600px|limit=2000}}

'''Conservation status: Endangered''' — Active eradication, no known preservation efforts, traditional cultivation knowledge under threat. {{Citation needed}}

== See Also ==

* [[Southeast Asian Gene Pool]]
* [[Kirivong Green Triangle]]
* [[Koh Kong province]]
* [[Cannabis in Khmer Cuisine]]
* [[Cannabis in Khmer Medicine]]
* [[Portal:Current Events]]

== Bibliography ==

The following works constitute the essential academic bibliography for cannabis in Cambodia. Items marked '''*''' are the highest-priority sources for further research.

* '''*''' Martin, Marie Alexandrine. "Ethnobotanical Aspects of Cannabis in Southeast Asia." In Vera Rubin (ed.), ''Cannabis and Culture''. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 1975, pp. 63–76. — ''The foundational source; 14-page chapter based on 1973 fieldwork documenting culinary, medicinal, and social use.''
* '''*''' Martin, Marie Alexandrine. ''Introduction à l'ethnobotanique du Cambodge''. Paris: Éditions du CNRS (CEDRASEMI), 1971, 257 pp. — ''Doctoral thesis; digitised on Gallica BnF (ark:/12148/bpt6k3339777w). Broader botanical inventory likely containing detailed cannabis entries.''
* '''*''' Dy Phon, Pauline. ''Plants Used in Cambodia / Plantes utilisées au Cambodge''. Phnom Penh, 2000, 915 pp. — ''Trilingual Khmer-English-French botanical dictionary; held in 13 major libraries worldwide. Not digitised.''
* '''*''' Law on Drug Control (Cambodia). English translation available at [https://cdc.gov.kh/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Law-on-Drug-Management_full-text_961209.pdf cdc.gov.kh]. ''Khmer version is the official text.''
* Clarke, Robert C. and Mark D. Merlin. ''Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013, 434 pp. — ''Global synthesis including Southeast Asian traditions.''
* Descours-Gatin, Chantal. ''Quand l'opium finançait la colonisation en Indochine: L'élaboration de la régie générale de l'opium (1860–1914)''. Paris: L'Harmattan, 1992. — ''Definitive study of the French colonial opium monopoly.''
* Oppenheimer, Edna. ''A Rapid Assessment of Drug Abuse in Cambodia''. World Bank / Cambodian Researchers for Development, 1995. — ''One of the few academic assessments bridging the post-KR documentation void.''
* Petelot, A. ''Les plantes médicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam''. 4 vols., 1952–1954. — ''Major French colonial pharmaceutical inventory for Indochina.''
* Thayer, Nate. "Cambodia: Asia's New Narco-State? Medellin on the Mekong." ''Far Eastern Economic Review'', 23 November 1995. — ''Landmark investigation that shaped the international narrative leading to the 1996 law.''

=== Archival Leads ===

* '''Archives nationales d'outre-mer (ANOM)''', Aix-en-Provence: Catalogue entry "Chanvre indien, cannabis, kif, interdiction: arrêtés" (ark:/61561/dk989jdkls) — ''colonial administrative orders on Indian hemp; geographic scope unverified; physical consultation required.''
* '''Bulletin administratif du Cambodge''': 47 years digitised on Gallica (BnF). ''Systematic OCR search for "chanvre," "cannabis," "kancha," and "stupéfiant" has never been conducted.''

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Country]]
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:Southeast Asia]]